What is a key topic discussed in PDN1306?
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Antibiotics.
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What is a key topic discussed in PDN1306?
Antibiotics.
What is chemotherapy?
The use of any chemical (drug) to treat any disease or condition.
Why can't some drugs affect certain bacteria?
Because the drugs are unable to cross the cell wall or cell membrane.
What is the focus of PDN1306?
Applied Pharmacology and Microbiology, specifically anti-microbial and anti-viral agents.
What are antimicrobial agents?
Any drug used to treat an infectious disease, either by inhibiting or killing pathogens.
What is a source of antibiotics derived from molds?
Penicillin and cephalosporins.
What is the effect of cell wall inhibitors on non-growing bacteria?
They have little or no effect on bacteria that are not growing and dividing.
What should be assessed before administering sulfonamides?
Anemia or other hematological disorders.
Does '-cidal' refer to agents that inhibit growth?
False.
Which antibiotics are derived from bacteria?
Bacitracin, erythromycin, and chloramphenicol.
Why are antiviral agents particularly difficult to develop?
Because viruses use the host's genetic and metabolic mechanisms to replicate.
Why is it important to assess renal function when administering sulfonamides?
Sulfonamides may increase the risk of crystalluria.
What is one therapeutic application of tetracyclines?
Treatment of typhus (斑疹熱).
What side effects should patients be taught to expect from fluoroquinolones?
Dizziness and light-headedness.
Why might a healthcare provider choose a narrow-spectrum antibiotic?
To minimize disruption to the patient's normal flora and reduce the risk of resistance.
What is the significance of understanding antibiotic mechanisms?
It helps in selecting appropriate treatment for infections.
Can macrolides be used for respiratory infections?
Yes, they are effective against respiratory tract infections.
What does 'cide' or 'cidal' mean in microbiology?
It refers to killing.
What are antibiotics used for?
Killing or inhibiting the growth of other microorganisms.
What is the consequence of intrinsic resistance for antibiotic treatment?
The drug cannot reach its site of action, such as ribosomes.
What disease caused by Vibrio cholerae can be treated with tetracyclines?
Cholera (霍亂).
What are antimicrobials?
Agents that kill or inhibit the growth of microorganisms, including bacteria, viruses, fungi, and parasites.
What electrolyte imbalances should be monitored during penicillin therapy?
Hyperkalemia and hypernatremia.
What is a direct toxicity effect of aminoglycosides?
Ototoxicity.
What cardiac aspect should be monitored during penicillin therapy?
Cardiac status, including ECG changes.
What is the primary effect of HIV on the body?
It attacks the immune system, specifically CD4 cells.
What is the focus of Lecture 10 in PDN1306?
Anti-microbial and anti-viral agents.
What do cell wall inhibitors do?
They interfere with the synthesis of the bacterial cell wall.
What is the definition of antibiotics?
Substances that kill or inhibit the growth of bacteria.
Can you name examples of cell wall inhibitors?
Examples include β-Lactam and Vancomycin.
Why are antibiotics important in pharmacology?
They are used to treat bacterial infections.
What is the primary focus of PDN1306?
Applied Pharmacology and Microbiology.
What are cephalosporins?
A class of antibiotics used to treat a variety of bacterial infections.
What type of antibiotics are fluoroquinolones?
Broad-spectrum bactericidal antibiotics.
Can macrolides be used against both Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria?
Yes, they are effective against a range of bacteria.
What are cephalosporins?
A class of antibiotics used to treat a variety of bacterial infections.
How do fluoroquinolones inhibit bacterial growth?
By inhibiting DNA synthesis through blocking an enzyme necessary for DNA replication.
What are bactericidal agents?
Agents that specifically kill bacteria, but not endospores.
What are chemotherapeutic agents?
Any drug used to treat any condition or disease.
What should be monitored during the administration of fluoroquinolones?
White blood count.
What can high levels of protein synthesis inhibitors cause?
Toxic effects due to interaction with host mitochondrial ribosomes.
How is antibiotic resistance measured?
By the amount of antibiotic needed to control bacterial growth.
What are the two main types of antibiotics based on their action?
Bactericidal and bacteriostatic.
How do macrolides function?
By inhibiting bacterial protein synthesis.
What cardiac effect may quinolones have?
They may prolong the QT interval.
How does the use of multiple antibiotics affect resistance?
It increases the risk of resistance.
Name a long-acting Tetracycline.
Doxycycline or Minocycline.
What does the term 'spectrum of activity' refer to in antibiotics?
The range of bacteria that an antibiotic can effectively target.
Do tetracyclines and aminoglycosides inhibit bacterial cell wall synthesis?
False.
What is antibiotic resistance?
The ability of bacterial populations to withstand the effects of antibiotics.
What should be avoided if a client has a history of severe penicillin allergy?
Cephalosporins.
What type of allergic reaction is commonly associated with penicillin?
Hypersensitivity/allergic reactions.
How are cephalosporins typically administered?
They can be given orally or intravenously, depending on the specific drug and infection.
What impact can antibiotics have on normal flora?
They can disrupt the balance of normal flora, leading to opportunistic infections.
What type of antibiotics is Penicillin classified as?
β-lactam antibiotics.
What are protein synthesis inhibitors?
Agents that interfere with the process of protein synthesis in cells.
What is the significance of the half-life of cephalosporins?
It determines the dosing frequency and duration of therapy.
What is the structure of the prokaryotic ribosome involved in protein synthesis?
It consists of a 70S ribosome made up of 30S and 50S subunits.
What are possible complications of antibiotic therapy?
Possible complications include allergic reactions, gastrointestinal disturbances, superinfections, and development of antibiotic-resistant bacteria.
What is the primary use of fluoroquinolones?
They are primarily used to treat bacterial infections.
What is the importance of an antimicrobial agent acting quickly?
To kill pathogens before they mutate and become resistant.
Which class of antibiotics is an example of time-dependent killing?
β-lactams.
What do sulfonamides inhibit in bacteria?
The production of folic acid.
What is a key characteristic of fluoroquinolones?
They are known for their broad-spectrum activity against various bacteria.
What is a notable concern regarding fluoroquinolones?
Rapid development of drug resistance, even during treatment.
Which clients should be closely monitored when administering fluoroquinolones?
Clients with liver and renal dysfunction.
Which type of fungi is known for producing antibiotics?
Streptomyces (鏈黴菌).
What is a major complication of inappropriate use of antibiotics?
Resistance.
How do antibiotics differ from antimicrobials?
Antibiotics specifically target bacteria, while antimicrobials can target a broader range of microorganisms.
What does a bacteria count of 71 indicate?
It may refer to the measurement of bacterial population in relation to antibiotic resistance.
What is concentration dependent killing?
A significant increase in the rate of bacterial killing as the drug concentration increases, exemplified by aminoglycosides.
What is synergism in antimicrobial therapy?
The use of 2 antimicrobial agents that produces greater pathogen killing than either drug alone.
How are cephalosporins classified?
Into generations based on their spectrum of activity and chemical structure.
What are the common types of antibiotic resistance?
Common types include enzymatic degradation of antibiotics, alteration of target sites, and increased efflux of the antibiotic from the bacterial cell.
What class of antibacterial agents do fluoroquinolones belong to?
Fluoroquinolones are a class of antibacterial agents.
What are the oral routes of administration for penicillin?
Pen V, Amoxicillin, and amoxicillin combined with clavulanic acid.
What are the mechanisms of bacterial resistance to antibiotics?
Blocking entry, inactivation by enzymes, alteration of target molecule, and efflux of antibiotic.
What is the structure characteristic of macrolides?
They have a macrocyclic lactone ring structure.
How can β-lactam antibiotics be inactivated?
By β-lactamases.
What function may be impaired due to aminoglycoside use?
Neuromuscular function.
Which antibiotic target involves interference with genetic material?
DNA/RNA Synthesis.
What is one of the most problematic antibiotic resistances worldwide?
Methicillin resistance among Staphylococcus aureus.
What is empiric antibiotic therapy?
Antibiotic treatment initiated for certain or suspected infections before specific microbiological results are available.
What is the mechanism of action of Tetracycline?
It inhibits protein synthesis in bacteria.
What is intrinsic resistance in bacteria?
Bacteria are naturally resistant because the drug cannot cross the cell wall or cell membrane to reach its site of action.
What is a broad-spectrum antibiotic?
An antibiotic that is effective against a wide variety of bacteria.
What is a narrow-spectrum antibiotic?
An antibiotic that is effective against a limited range of bacteria.
How can antibiotic therapy lead to antibiotic resistance?
Overuse and misuse of antibiotics can promote the survival of resistant bacteria.
What are cephalosporins?
A class of antibiotics used to treat a variety of bacterial infections.
Which bacteria is known for its antibiotic-producing capabilities?
Micromonospora (小單孢菌).
Can antibiotics be classified as antimicrobials?
Yes, antibiotics are a subset of antimicrobials that specifically target bacteria.
How do tetracyclines work?
They target bacterial ribosomes by blocking protein synthesis, preventing the addition of amino acids to the polypeptide chain.
How does tetracycline affect oral contraceptives?
It decreases their effectiveness.
Which cellular structure do some antibiotics disrupt to exert their effects?
Cell membrane.
What is antagonism in antimicrobial therapy?
The use of 2 drugs that results in less pathogen killing than either drug alone.
What should be monitored when administering aminoglycosides?
Ototoxicity and nephrotoxicity.
How is synergy between two antimicrobials indicated?
By key-hole formation.
What is the most commonly used fluoroquinolone?
Ciprofloxacin.
What potential side effect may occur after aminoglycoside therapy?
Hearing loss.
What is the typical time frame for microbiological results to be available?
24 - 72 hours.
Which penicillins are administered via IV/IM?
Ticarcillin, piperacillin, ampicillin with sulbactam, ticarcillin with clavulanic acid, and piperacillin with tazobactam.
What is the significance of early diagnosis of HIV?
It allows for timely treatment and management to prolong life and improve quality of life.
What should tetracycline not be taken with?
Milk products, iron supplements, magnesium-containing laxatives, or antacids.
How does food affect the absorption of penicillin?
Food in the stomach decreases absorption; it should be administered 30-60 minutes before meals.
How do antiviral drugs affect viral entry?
They can block the receptors or fusion processes that allow viruses to enter host cells.
What metabolic pathway do some antibiotics inhibit to prevent bacterial growth?
Folate Synthesis.
What is a notable feature of third-generation cephalosporins?
Increased activity against Gram-negative bacteria.
Name two inhibitors of neuraminidase for influenza treatment.
Zanamivir (Relenza) and Oseltamivir (Tamiflu).
Is inhibition of motility a common mechanism by which antimicrobial agents kill or inhibit the growth of bacteria?
True.
What are examples of protein synthesis inhibitors?
Chloramphenicol and tetracyclines.
What are common complications of antibiotic therapy?
Allergic reactions, gastrointestinal disturbances, and antibiotic resistance.
What are semisynthetic antibiotics?
Chemically modified antibiotics, such as ampicillin and carbenicillin.
What is the primary action of effective antiviral drugs?
Inhibiting viral replication within cells.
What are macrolides commonly used for in therapy?
They are used to treat various bacterial infections.
What are antibiotics?
Substances that kill or inhibit the growth of bacteria.
How many antiviral drugs are generally effective?
Only a few.
What are the two main classifications of antibiotics based on their mode of action?
Bacteriostatic and Bactericidal.
What is a key advantage of using macrolides?
They have a broad spectrum of activity against gram-positive and some gram-negative bacteria.
What can untreated HIV infection lead to?
Acquired Immunodeficiency Syndrome (AIDS).
Are macrolides effective against atypical pathogens?
Yes, they are effective against atypical pathogens like Mycoplasma and Chlamydia.
What is an example of bacteria that shows resistance to penicillins and cephalosporins?
Pseudomonas aeruginosa.
How are antibiotics classified based on their spectrum of action?
Into broad-spectrum and narrow-spectrum antibiotics.
Which cephalosporin is effective against more gram-negative bacteria, ceftriaxone or cephalexin?
Ceftriaxone (3rd generation) is effective against more gram-negative bacteria than cephalexin (1st generation).
What is Zanamivir (Relenza) used for?
Treatment of influenza A and influenza B.
How are cephalosporins classified?
Into generations based on their spectrum of activity and chemical structure.
What are minimal side effects associated with most antimicrobial agents?
Allergic reactions and development of resistant mutant pathogens.
Why are aminoglycosides often used in combination with other antibiotics?
To enhance their antibacterial effect and reduce the risk of resistance.
What is a significant side effect of aminoglycosides?
Ototoxicity and nephrotoxicity.
What is a potential complication of IV administration of macrolides?
Increased thrombophlebitis.
What does alteration of the target molecule mean?
Bacteria change the structure of the molecule that antibiotics target, making the drug ineffective.
How do sulfonamides affect bacteria?
They compete with PABA due to similar structure, leading to no folic acid production.
What is the effect of macrolides at higher doses?
They are bactericidal.
What do protein synthesis inhibitors target?
The bacterial ribosome.
What is one source of antibiotics?
Bacillus (桿菌).
What should be assessed before administering penicillin?
Previous drug reactions to penicillin.
What gastrointestinal disturbance can occur due to antibiotic therapy?
Diarrhea, often caused by Clostridium difficile infection.
What is the importance of understanding the spectrum of activity of antibiotics?
It helps in selecting the appropriate antibiotic for treating specific infections.
Why are quinolones not recommended for children?
Due to potential adverse effects on developing joints.
What is the significance of initiating antibiotic therapy?
To effectively control bacterial infections and manage resistance.
What are the mechanisms of antibiotics?
Antibiotics work by targeting specific bacterial functions, such as cell wall synthesis, protein synthesis, nucleic acid synthesis, and metabolic pathways.
What is the mechanism of action of antibiotics?
They target specific bacterial functions or structures to disrupt growth or kill bacteria.
What are antiviral agents?
Medications used to treat viral infections.
How do bacteria block the entry of antibiotics?
By altering porin proteins that form channels in the cell membrane.
What should an ideal antimicrobial agent target?
A metabolic process or structure possessed by pathogens.
How do aminoglycosides work?
They inhibit bacterial protein synthesis by binding to the 30S ribosomal subunit.
What is the primary mechanism of action of cephalosporins?
Inhibition of bacterial cell wall synthesis.
What are sulfonamides?
A class of antibacterial agents.
Can antiviral agents cure viral infections?
They can manage symptoms and reduce viral load but often do not cure the infection.
What is the truncation effect in the context of antagonism?
It affects the zone of inhibition of drug D1, to which bacteria have sensitivity.
What type of bacteria are aminoglycosides primarily effective against?
Gram-negative bacteria.
What types of viruses are commonly targeted by antiviral agents?
Influenza, HIV, herpes viruses, and hepatitis viruses.
What is Oseltamivir (Tamiflu) primarily used to treat?
Avian influenza (bird flu), specifically H5N1.
What does chloramphenicol do in protein synthesis?
It binds to the 50S portion and inhibits the formation of peptide bonds.
What is a bacteriostatic agent?
A drug that inhibits the metabolism and reproduction of bacteria without killing them.
How does taking dairy foods affect tetracycline absorption?
It decreases absorption.
What is the efflux mechanism in bacterial resistance?
Bacteria pump out the antibiotic before it can exert its effect.
What is the primary focus of PDN1306?
Applied Pharmacology and Microbiology.
What are macrolides?
A class of antibacterial agents.
What is another source of antibiotics from fungi?
Penicillium (多孢菌).
What type of antibiotics are cephalosporins?
Cephalosporins are β-lactams.
What is a potential allergic reaction to antibiotics?
Rashes, hives, or anaphylaxis.
What is a key characteristic of an ideal antimicrobial agent regarding storage?
It should be stable when stored in solid or liquid form.
How do cephalosporins work?
They inhibit bacterial cell wall synthesis, leading to cell lysis and death.
What is one of the primary targets of antibiotics?
Cell Wall.
What is time-dependent killing?
Killing that depends on the percentage of time that blood concentrations remain above the minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC), as seen with β-lactams.
In which patients should quinolones not be used?
In patients with arrhythmias.
What process do certain antibiotics inhibit to prevent bacterial growth?
Nucleic acid synthesis.
What are the generations of cephalosporins?
Cephalosporins are classified into generations based on their spectrum of activity and resistance to beta-lactamases.
How is HIV primarily transmitted?
Through unprotected sexual contact, sharing needles, or from mother to child during childbirth.
What is another target for antibiotics that affects protein production?
Protein synthesis.
What are some common side effects of cephalosporins?
Allergic reactions, gastrointestinal disturbances, and potential for superinfection.
What substances can interfere with the absorption of quinolones?
Antacids containing aluminum or magnesium, dietary substances containing iron or zinc, and calcium, milk, or yogurt.
What type of bacteria does Vancomycin target?
Gram-positive bacteria.
How can bacteria inactivate antibiotics?
Through enzymatic action that breaks down the antibiotic.
What type of antimicrobial agents are often used in empiric therapy?
Broad spectrum antimicrobial agents, sometimes in combination.
What is the primary mechanism of action of antibiotics?
Antibiotics can work by disrupting bacterial cell wall synthesis, protein synthesis, nucleic acid synthesis, or metabolic pathways.
What are some common side effects of Tetracycline?
Nausea, diarrhea, and sensitivity to sunlight.
What is the role of mRNA in protein synthesis?
It serves as a template for the sequence of amino acids in a protein.
What are the common side effects of cephalosporins?
Allergic reactions, gastrointestinal disturbances, and potential for superinfection.
Why is knowledge of bacterial resistance mechanisms important?
It helps in understanding the limitations of antibiotic use.
How are cephalosporins classified?
As 1st to 5th generation based on spectrum of antimicrobial activity.
What is one alteration that bacteria can make to resist antibiotics?
Alteration of metabolic pathways of the host.
What precaution should be advised to patients taking fluoroquinolones?
Avoid driving or performing hazardous tasks during drug therapy.
What is the purpose of modifying antibiotics chemically?
To increase spectrum or reduce side effects.
What is a common method of administering antiviral agents?
In combinations known as 'cocktails'.
What is the primary mechanism of action for antibiotics targeting bacteria?
Inhibition of cell wall synthesis.
What can degrade cephalosporins?
β-lactamase secreting bacteria.
What are aminoglycosides?
A class of antibacterial agents used to treat infections caused by certain bacteria.
Do tetracyclines penetrate intact mammalian cells effectively?
No, they do not penetrate very well, but small amounts can enter host cells.
What type of bacteria are aminoglycosides effective against?
They are primarily effective against aerobic gram-negative bacteria.
Which antibiotic target involves disrupting the protective barrier of bacteria?
Cell Membrane.
What are the two main types of antibiotic mechanisms?
Bactericidal (kill bacteria) and bacteriostatic (inhibit growth).
What is a significant concern regarding the therapeutic utility of quinolones?
Limited therapeutic utility and rapid development of resistance.
What process do antibiotics target to inhibit bacterial growth related to proteins?
Protein Synthesis.
What types of bacteria are cephalosporins effective against?
Both Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria, depending on the generation.
What is the toxicity level of Penicillin?
It has low toxicity.
What type of therapy is chosen when microbiological results are not available?
Empiric initial therapy guided by clinical presentation.
What is the primary use of sulfonamides?
To treat bacterial infections.
What are antibiotics?
Antibiotics are substances that inhibit the growth of or kill bacteria.
What is the absorption characteristic of tetracycline?
Adequately but incompletely absorbed orally.
What do aminoglycosides inhibit?
Bacterial protein synthesis.
What are Tetracyclines?
A class of antibacterial agents.
What is unique about the antibiotic that is destructive to both Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria?
It has a broad spectrum of action.
What is a common use for cephalosporins?
Treatment of respiratory tract infections, skin infections, and urinary tract infections.
How are antimicrobials classified?
Based on their spectrum of activity and mechanism of action.
What is the spectrum of activity for cephalosporins?
They have a broad spectrum of activity against both gram-positive and gram-negative bacteria.
What role do antibiotics play in protein synthesis?
Certain antibiotics bind to bacterial ribosomes, preventing protein synthesis necessary for bacterial growth.
Can cephalosporins be used in patients with penicillin allergies?
Caution is advised, as there may be cross-reactivity.
What is the purpose of reassessing antibiotic therapy after 3 days?
To evaluate the effectiveness and make necessary adjustments.
What is the primary use of macrolides?
To treat bacterial infections.
What type of antibacterial agents are tetracyclines?
Broad-spectrum drugs that are bacteriostatic.
What does HIV stand for?
Human Immunodeficiency Virus.
What are cephalosporins?
A class of antibiotics used to treat a variety of bacterial infections.
What complication can arise from the use of broad spectrum antimicrobials?
Super infections due to alteration of normal bacteria.
What factors influence the fate of cephalosporins in the body?
Absorption, distribution, metabolism, and excretion.
How long should an ideal antimicrobial agent remain in specific tissues?
Long enough to be effective.
When can multidrug therapy be used?
When multiple organisms cause infection, for treatment of tuberculosis, or for treatment of HIV.
Which class of antibiotics is an example of concentration dependent killing?
Aminoglycosides.
What type of antibiotics are cephalosporins?
Bactericidal.
What are cephalosporins?
A class of antibiotics used to treat a variety of bacterial infections.
What types of bacteria are tetracyclines effective against?
Both Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria.
What is the first characteristic of life?
Living things are composed of cells.
What is a specific pathway that some antibiotics interfere with?
Specific metabolic pathways.
How does food affect the absorption of macrolides?
Food interferes with absorption.
To which class of antibiotics are cephalosporins closely related?
Penicillins.
What is a common side effect of cephalosporins?
Allergic reactions, including rash and anaphylaxis.
What are cephalosporins?
A class of antibiotics used to treat a variety of bacterial infections.
Which antibiotics can be removed by efflux pumps?
Tetracyclines, macrolides, and quinolones.
What is the half-life of short-acting Tetracyclines?
6 - 8 hours.
Why are aminoglycosides considered relatively toxic?
They can cause permanent damage to the auditory nerve and kidneys.
What are the generations of cephalosporins?
Cephalosporins are classified into generations, with each generation having different activity against bacteria.
What is a common side effect of macrolides?
Gastrointestinal disturbances, such as nausea and diarrhea.
Name an intermediate-acting Tetracycline.
Demeclocycline or Methacycline.
What is the half-life of long-acting Tetracyclines?
16 hours.
What is the spectrum of activity of cephalosporins?
They have a broad spectrum of activity against both Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria.
How are cephalosporins classified?
Into generations based on their spectrum of activity and chemical structure.
What is the relationship between generation and spectrum of activity in cephalosporins?
The higher the generation, the broader the spectrum.
What is the mechanism of action of Penicillin?
Inactivates cell wall proteins.
What are viruses often debated about regarding their status as living entities?
Whether they are alive or not.
What indicates antagonism between two antimicrobials?
D-effect and growth of bacteria resistant to drug D.
What is a common side effect of macrolides?
Gastrointestinal disturbances.
What are cephalosporins classified as?
Semi-synthetic antibiotics.
What are macrolides?
A class of antibiotics that inhibit bacterial protein synthesis.
What are some common side effects of cephalosporins?
Allergic reactions, gastrointestinal disturbances, and potential for superinfection.
On which type of bacteria does Penicillin have maximum effect?
Bacteria that are actively dividing.
How do sulfonamides work?
They inhibit bacterial growth by interfering with folic acid synthesis.
What is the importance of antiviral agents in public health?
They help control outbreaks and reduce the severity of viral infections.
What enzyme do some bacteria secrete that contributes to drug resistance?
β-lactamase.
What is the role of antiviral drugs in viral replication?
They inhibit viral enzymes necessary for replication, such as polymerases.
How do cephalosporins work?
They inhibit bacterial cell wall synthesis, leading to cell lysis and death.
What is the difference between bactericidal and bacteriostatic antibiotics?
Bactericidal antibiotics kill bacteria, while bacteriostatic antibiotics inhibit their growth.
What is the fifth characteristic of life?
Living things grow.
What is an example of a drug-resistant bacteria mentioned?
Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA).
What is the mechanism of action for antiviral drugs during viral release?
They can inhibit the enzymes that facilitate the release of new virions from infected cells.
What structural feature do cephalosporins contain?
A β-lactam ring.
Can antibiotics affect nucleic acid synthesis?
Yes, some antibiotics inhibit enzymes involved in DNA replication and transcription.
What should be monitored with certain macrolides like erythromycin estolate?
Hepatic enzymes.
How are cephalosporins classified?
By generation, based on general features pertaining to activity.
What is the structure of Penicillin?
A four-sided ring structure.
What are aminoglycosides?
A class of antibiotics used to treat bacterial infections.
Which intracellular pathogens are sensitive to tetracyclines?
Rickettsia and Chlamydia.
What do fungicidal agents do?
They kill fungi, including fungal spores.
What can affect the effectiveness of cephalosporins?
Bacterial resistance and the presence of other medications.
How do bactericidal antibiotics work?
By causing lethal damage to bacterial cells.
What is a common side effect of aminoglycosides?
Ototoxicity and nephrotoxicity.
What are the major sites of antiviral drug action?
Antiviral drugs act at various stages of the viral life cycle, including entry, replication, assembly, and release.
What is the primary mechanism of action of macrolides?
They inhibit protein synthesis.
What type of antibiotics are linked by glycoside bonds?
Bactericidal broad-spectrum antibiotics.
What is the role of p-aminobenzoic acid (PABA) in folic acid synthesis?
It is required by bacteria to synthesize folic acid.
What is the primary mechanism of action of macrolides?
They bind to the 50S ribosomal subunit, preventing peptide chain elongation.
Which types of bacteria are susceptible to Penicillin?
Gram (+) cocci, bacilli, Gram (-) cocci, some anaerobic bacteria, and some spirochetes.
What is the recommended time frame for starting chemotherapy after patient admission?
No more than 6 hours.
What is the direction of ribosome movement during translation?
The ribosome moves in the 5' to 3' direction along the mRNA.
What factors influence the selection of an antimicrobial agent?
Organism's susceptibility to the antibiotic and patient factors such as immune system and renal/hepatic function.
Why are human and animal cells unaffected by sulfa drugs?
Because they do not synthesize folic acid from PABA.
What is the primary mechanism of action of cephalosporins?
Inhibition of bacterial cell wall synthesis.
What types of bacteria are macrolides effective against?
Chlamydias, mycoplasmas, T. pallidum, and Legionella spp.
In which clients should caution be used when prescribing tetracycline?
Clients with impaired kidney or liver function.
What is Tetracycline?
An antibiotic used to treat a variety of infections.
How do antiviral agents work?
They inhibit the development and replication of viruses.
What is a common side effect of tetracycline?
Photosensitivity.
What types of infections can Tetracycline treat?
Bacterial infections, including acne and respiratory tract infections.
Which bacteria are fluoroquinolones effective against?
Members of the family Enterobacteriaceae (e.g., Escherichia coli) and P. aeruginosa.
What is one way bacteria can block antibiotic entry?
By altering the cell membrane to prevent drug entry.
What is a key characteristic of Tetracycline?
It is effective against a broad spectrum of bacteria.
What is the mechanism of action of tetracyclines?
They interfere with the attachment of tRNA to the mRNA-ribosome complex.
What is the second characteristic of life?
Living things have different levels of cellular organization.
What is the primary mechanism of action of cephalosporins?
Inhibition of bacterial cell wall synthesis.
What is the effect of macrolides at lower doses?
They are bacteriostatic.
Are fluoroquinolones considered toxic?
They are relatively nontoxic.
What are antibiotics?
Substances that kill or inhibit the growth of bacteria.
How are aminoglycosides typically administered?
Intravenously or intramuscularly.
What are cephalosporins?
A class of antibiotics used to treat a variety of bacterial infections.
Can cephalosporins be used in patients with penicillin allergies?
Caution is advised, as there may be cross-reactivity.
Name an alternative drug to penicillin that is a macrolide.
Erythromycin.
Name a short-acting Tetracycline.
Tetracycline or Chlortetracycline.
What is the sixth characteristic of life?
Living things reproduce.
What is a solution to counteract β-lactamase activity?
Add clavulanic acid, a β-lactamase inhibitor.
What is a significant side effect of aminoglycosides related to kidneys?
Nephrotoxicity.
What is an example of a metabolic pathway that antibiotics can target?
Some antibiotics inhibit folic acid synthesis, which is crucial for bacterial growth.
What type of antibiotics are sulfonamides and trimethoprim?
Metabolic inhibitors.
Are aminoglycosides effective against anaerobes?
No, they are ineffective against anaerobes.
What is the difference between bacteriostatic and bactericidal antibiotics?
Bacteriostatic antibiotics stop microbes from multiplying, while bactericidal antibiotics kill the microbes.
What is the primary mechanism of action of cephalosporins?
Inhibition of bacterial cell wall synthesis.
What is the function of neuraminidase in the influenza virus?
It is an enzyme that facilitates the release of new viral particles from infected cells.
What is a common mechanism of action for aminoglycosides?
They inhibit protein synthesis in bacteria.
How does streptomycin affect protein synthesis?
It changes the shape of the 30S portion, causing the mRNA code to be read incorrectly.
What is the function of viricidal agents?
They destroy viruses.
What types of bacteria are cephalosporins effective against?
Both Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria, depending on the generation.
How do bacteriostatic antibiotics function?
By inhibiting bacterial growth and reproduction.
What does 'static' mean in the context of antimicrobial agents?
It refers to stopping growth.
What should be increased to promote excretion of aminoglycosides?
Fluid intake, unless contraindicated.
What is a common mechanism of action for fluoroquinolones?
They inhibit bacterial DNA gyrase and topoisomerase IV.
What is the mode of action of cephalosporins?
Inhibit the synthesis of the cell wall.
What do broad spectrum antimicrobial agents cover?
Multiple possible pathogens, including community and hospital-acquired infections.
How is penicillin excreted from the body?
Through the kidneys.
What is empiric therapy?
Treatment given prior to the identification of the organism, often used for critically ill patients.
Which pathogens are commonly associated with bacterial meningitis?
S. pneumoniae and Neisseria meningitidis.
Which macrolides interfere with the metabolism of other drugs?
Erythromycin and telithromycin.
What is the significance of the AUC24/MIC ratio?
It helps determine the effectiveness of antibiotic therapy, with a target of > 125%.
What should be assessed before administering macrolides?
The presence of respiratory infection.
What is the seventh characteristic of life?
Living things adapt to their environment.
What is co-amoxiclav commonly known as?
Augmentin.
Why is cost an important factor in the selection of antimicrobial therapy?
Cost can affect accessibility and adherence to the treatment regimen.
What are antiviral agents?
Medications that treat viral infections.
What are examples of cell membrane inhibitors?
Isoniazid and Amphotericin B.
What type of bacteria does Nalidixic acid target?
Gram-negative bacteria.
What is the distribution of penicillin to bone and CSF?
Distribution to bone and CSF is insufficient.
Are sulfonamides bactericidal or bacteriostatic?
They are generally considered bacteriostatic.
What is the fourth characteristic of life?
Living things respond to their environment.
What are some common examples of macrolides?
Erythromycin, azithromycin, and clarithromycin.
How do antibiotics affect bacterial cell walls?
Some antibiotics inhibit the synthesis of peptidoglycan, which is essential for bacterial cell wall integrity.
What are the ideal properties of macrolides?
Good tissue penetration, oral bioavailability, and a favorable safety profile.
How does the site of infection affect antimicrobial therapy?
It can impact the ability of the antibiotic to reach the infection site, such as the blood-brain barrier.
What are some common side effects of cephalosporins?
Allergic reactions, gastrointestinal disturbances, and potential for superinfection.
What is the spectrum of activity of narrow-spectrum antibiotics?
Effective against one or very few types of microorganisms.
What does 'prophylactic therapy' refer to?
Preventive antibiotic treatment to avoid infections.
What is the role of efflux pumps in antibiotic resistance?
They actively transport antibiotics out of the bacterial cell.
What is the third characteristic of life?
Living things use energy.
What is the significance of the different generations of cephalosporins?
Each generation has varying effectiveness against different types of bacteria.
What types of bacteria are macrolides effective against?
They are primarily effective against Gram-positive bacteria and some Gram-negative bacteria.
Against which type of bacteria are aminoglycosides effective?
Aerobic Gram-negative bacteria.
What does 'definitive antibiotic treatment' involve?
Treatment based on specific microbiological results, including antibiogram and MIC.
How are cephalosporins classified?
Into generations based on their spectrum of activity and chemical structure.
What is a notable feature of the later generations of cephalosporins?
Increased effectiveness against Gram-negative bacteria.
What is another mechanism of action of antibiotics?
Inhibition of DNA/RNA synthesis.
What client history should be examined before macrolide administration?
History of cardiac disorders.
What is a key consideration when administering cephalosporins?
Assessing for allergies, especially to penicillin, due to potential cross-reactivity.
Which antibiotics are classified as cell wall inhibitors?
β-Lactam and Vancomycin.
What types of bacteria are cephalosporins effective against?
Both Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria, depending on the generation.
Where are macrolides distributed in the body?
High in all body fluids and prostatic fluids, except CSF.
How does β-lactamase affect beta-lactam antibiotics?
It destroys the beta-lactam ring, rendering the antibiotics ineffective.
What type of action do sulfonamides have?
Bacteriostatic; they inhibit the growth of bacteria.
Which macrolides have a broader antimicrobial spectrum?
Clarithromycin and azithromycin.
Are sulfonamides often prescribed on their own?
No, they are seldom prescribed on their own.
What safety considerations are important when selecting an antimicrobial agent?
The safety of the agent must be evaluated to avoid adverse effects.
What are some common side effects of cephalosporins?
Allergic reactions, gastrointestinal disturbances, and potential for superinfection.
What is a significant concern when using macrolides?
Multiple drug-drug interactions.
What are examples of protein synthesis inhibitors?
Tetracyclines, Aminoglycosides, Macrolides, Clindamycin, Chloramphenicol.
How do cephalosporins compare to penicillins in terms of resistance to β-lactamases?
They are more resistant than penicillins to certain β-lactamases.
What limits the clinical use of tetracycline?
Widespread resistance.
What is the recommended treatment for bacterial meningitis?
3rd generation cephalosporin + vancomycin.
What is a significant side effect of aminoglycosides related to hearing?
Ototoxicity.
What is the spectrum of activity of broad-spectrum antibiotics?
Effective against several types of microorganisms.
What is the combination of piperacillin and tazobactam known as?
Tazocin.
How do antiviral drugs interfere with viral assembly?
They can disrupt the processes that lead to the assembly of viral components into new virions.
What is the mode of action of bactericidal antibiotics?
They kill the bacteria.
What is one mechanism of action of antibiotics?
Inhibition of cell wall synthesis.
What is the mode of action of bacteriostatic antibiotics?
They stop the bacteria from multiplying.
What is the half-life of intermediate-acting Tetracyclines?
12 hours.
What types of bacteria are cephalosporins effective against?
Both Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria, depending on the generation.
What is the recommendation regarding the use of aminoglycosides?
Use should be reduced due to toxicity.
What can be combined with aminoglycosides for enhanced effect?
β-lactam antibacterial agents.
What is a major concern regarding antibiotics?
Antibiotic resistance.
What are the characteristics of optimal antibiotic therapy in the ICU?
High dose, high peak concentration, and polychemotherapy.
What is a third mechanism of action of antibiotics?
Inhibition of protein synthesis.
What is a notable feature of later-generation cephalosporins?
Increased effectiveness against Gram-negative bacteria.
Which antibiotics inhibit nucleic acid synthesis?
Fluoroquinolones and Rifampin.
What is a specific pathway targeted by some antibiotics?
Folic acid synthesis.
What is the role of microbiological monitoring in antibiotic therapy?
To guide the choice and adjustment of antibiotic treatment based on infection type.
