HB Unit 3 - Neurobiology and Immunology

92 - 94%.

Because they can change their antigens more effectively than others.

It allows the influenza virus to remain a major public health problem, requiring annual vaccinations.

To support and maintain the neurones.

Catching chickenpox.

The ability of the body to resist infection by a pathogen or to destroy the organism if it invades.

Does it work? Is it safe? Does it cause side effects? How does it affect quality of life? Does it work better than existing treatments?

The person acquires artificial immunity.

A motile cell that can recognize pathogens.

The engulfing of pathogens and their destruction by digestive enzymes in lysosomes.

A person is exposed to a live pathogen, develops the disease, and becomes immune as a result of the primary immune response.

To process incoming signals and maintain the neuron's health.

It takes time to produce antibodies.

83 - 94%.

Histamine.

It reduces the rate and strength of contraction.

Fragments of a pathogen's antigen displayed on infected cells.

Dendrite, Cell Body, Axon.

A vaccine, which contains the antigen.

In a controlled and carefully planned way.

Antigens.

There is a decreased rate of peristalsis.

There is an increased rate of peristalsis.

Invading pathogens.

It stimulates a primary response against the antigen without causing symptoms of disease.

It works against any type of disease-causing agent.

1.5 - 3.5.

Neurones and glial cells.

Contact.

To receive signals from other neurons.

It digests the cell walls of bacteria and destroys them.

85%.

Phagocytosis.

Impulses from one neuron travel to several neurons, affecting multiple destinations simultaneously.

Failure in regulation of the immune system.

Lysozyme.

B Lymphocytes and T Lymphocytes.

They form a physical barrier and offer protection as long as the skin remains intact.

B Lymphocytes responding to harmless antigens like pollen.

It is stored, and decisions are made for appropriate responses and behavior.

They survive long term as memory cells.

Autoimmune diseases.

The first response to an antigen that produces antibodies.

A minimum number must attach to receptors to reach threshold on the postsynaptic membrane.

Airborne through saliva droplets.

The type of receptor present, either excitatory or inhibitory.

Neurotransmitters that stimulate neurons involved in reducing the intensity of pain.

Motor responses that either initiate muscular contractions or glandular secretions.

It causes muscle fibers to contract, e.g., peristalsis.

To destroy infected cells by recognizing pathogen antigens.

The divergence of motor neurons for fine motor control of fingers.

Type 1 diabetes and rheumatoid arthritis.

To transmit nerve impulses away from the cell body.

They sweep mucus and trapped microbes up and away from the lungs.

In the skin and inner linings of the digestive and respiratory systems.

Lymphocytes.

Through random mutation or programmed changes in protein expression.

To find new and improved ways of preventing, diagnosing, treating, and controlling illnesses.

Due to the antigenic variation of the influenza virus.

The rate of contraction of smooth muscle in the digestive tract.

At converging neural pathways.

It speeds up heart rate and breathing rate.

Severe injury, prolonged exercise, stress, and certain foods.

Dendrites -> Cell Body -> Axon.

Memory cells become ineffective against pathogens that change their antigens.

It is sticky and helps to trap microorganisms.

They must be shown to be safe and effective when used in humans.

It destroys many of the microbes that have been swallowed.

It causes contraction in muscle.

Feelings of pleasure from activities such as eating, sex, and prolonged exercise.

Recall is best for items shown at the end (recency effect) and those at the start (primacy effect), while items in the middle are recalled poorly.

80 - 85%.

It is greater and more rapid during the secondary response.

They contain digestive enzymes that destroy engulfed bacteria.

A synaptic cleft.

T lymphocytes.

Acetylcholine and Noradrenaline.

In vesicles in the axon endings of the presynaptic neuron.

They are released into the synaptic cleft.

Inflammatory response.

They can impair the ability to carry out complex mental tasks.

The presynaptic neuron is before the synaptic cleft, and the postsynaptic neuron is after it.

Rehearsal facilitates transfer from STM to LTM.

They release histamine.

It leads to improved information retention.

Accumulation of phagocytes and delivery of blood clotting elements.

Thought to have unlimited capacity.

The ability of pathogens to change their antigens to evade the immune system.

A bacterium, virus, or other organism that can cause disease.

Physical and chemical defenses.

By filtering out weak stimuli arising from insufficient secretion of neurotransmitters.

Randomised, double-blind, and placebo-controlled.

Faecal-oral route.

Self-antigens.

White blood cells involved in the specific immune response that respond to specific antigens.

A dummy treatment, such as a sugar pill that looks like the drug being tested.

It acts as the control center of cell metabolism.

Vaccines made from weakened forms of pathogens, such as Measles, Mumps, and Rubella vaccines.

LTM has unlimited capacity and holds information for a long time.

A suitable group size reduces experimental error and helps establish statistical significance.

The type of receptor.

To insulate the axon and increase the speed of impulse conduction.

Diseases like Multiple Sclerosis destroy the myelin sheath, causing a loss of coordination.

They support neurons physically and produce the myelin sheath.

It was a very common bacterial infection and one of the leading causes of death in children.

The narrow space that separates neurons at a synapse.

It is proportionate to the sensitivity of that body part.

Repeated use of drugs that act as antagonists.

A physical injury occurs.

They stimulate specific receptors, causing a decrease in number and sensitivity.

Displacement or decay.

They persist and can initiate a secondary response if exposed to the normal disease-causing antigen later.

A process where a series of weak stimuli combine to trigger enough neurotransmitter to fire an impulse in the postsynaptic neuron.

To put subjects into different groups at random, reducing bias in characteristics like age and gender.

Cytokines.

The Somatic Nervous System (SNS) and the Autonomic Nervous System (ANS).

An outbreak occurs.

It destroys the invading pathogen before symptoms appear.

A single nerve fibre that carries nerve impulses away from the cell body.

Items are organized into categories such as personal facts and useful skills.

When a critical portion of a community is immunized, protecting most members from contagious diseases.

The bacterium is degraded and destroyed.

They alter mood, cognition, perception, and behavior.

Once released into the blood and lymphatic system, they are transported to the infected area.

There is a risk of an outbreak occurring.

They block specific receptors, leading to increased number and sensitivity of these receptors.

Increased permeability of capillaries leading to fluid leakage.

Contextual cues at the time of encoding.

It slows down peristalsis and production of intestinal secretions.

The brain and the spinal cord.

It has an inhibitory effect, reducing contraction rate and strength.

They are specific to one antigen and activate the lymphocyte when bound by that antigen.

It greatly increases the speed at which impulses can be transmitted.

It adheres to the bacterium and engulfs it in the cell membrane.

Peripheral nerves.

AIDS (Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome).

Sensory and Motor Neurons.

It is either transferred to long-term memory or lost through displacement or decay.

They can make individuals feel happier, more confident, or more aggressive.

Histamine.

They can cause misinterpretation of environmental stimuli like color, sounds, and time.

Rehearsal, Organisation, and Elaboration.

It is broken down by an enzyme into non-active products, which are then reabsorbed and resynthesized.

It facilitates the transfer of information between the cerebral hemispheres.

Elaboration involves analyzing the meaning of the item and linking it to previous memories.

Impulses from several neurons travel to one neuron, increasing sensitivity to signals.

It changes the actions of the sympathetic system in the opposite way.

Diverging, Converging, and Reverberating neural pathways.

They relay messages from nerve to nerves within and outside the brain.

Not enough to confer herd immunity.

Chemicals that relay messages across the synaptic cleft.

A vacuole.

They release digestive enzymes that destroy the bacterium.

A myelin sheath.

They bind to and stimulate specific receptors, mimicking the action of a neurotransmitter at a synapse.

They are responsible for sensory, motor, and association areas concerning language, personality, imagination, and intelligence.

It receives impulses from receptors in the skin, organs, and muscles, then passes this information to the motor area.

It is reabsorbed directly into the presynaptic membrane that secreted it.

It leads to craving more of the drug due to increased receptor sensitivity.

Poverty in developing countries or vaccine rejection in developed countries.

Contracts smooth muscle wall of bronchioles, decreasing intake of air.

They are concerned that the MMR vaccine is not safe.

One group receives the new treatment, while the other (control group) receives the standard treatment or a placebo.

The nucleus and most of the cytoplasm.

Induces feelings of pleasure and reinforces particular behavior by activating the reward pathway in the brain.

The process of converting sensory images into a form that the brain can process and store.

By releasing proteins that produce self-destructing enzymes.

They are visual receptors that increase sensitivity to low levels of illumination.

Divisions at the end of an axon.

They produce antibodies against antigens, leading to the destruction of pathogens.

Y-shaped proteins with receptor binding sites specific to a particular antigen on a pathogen.

It recalls memories and alters behavior in light of experience.

In one direction only.

They are rapidly removed from the synaptic cleft to prevent continuous stimulation.

Reuptake and enzyme degradation.

They relay impulses across the synaptic cleft.

Prepares the body for rest and digest.

Increases contraction of cardiac muscles and cardiac output.

Limited capacity.

Vaccines made from pathogens that are killed or inactive, such as the Diphtheria and Tetanus vaccines.

Encoding, storage, and retrieval.

Programmed cell death induced by T lymphocytes.

Several rods converge to one rod bipolar cell, allowing enough neurotransmitter to be released.

When an individual engages in behavior that is beneficial to them, such as eating when hungry.

A substance mixed with antigens to enhance the immune response and make the vaccine more effective.

A very short-lived memory that retains all visual and auditory input for about 0.5 seconds.

It reduces the probability of contact with infected individuals, thus providing indirect protection.

Take impulses from sense organs to the Central Nervous System (CNS).

Take impulses from the Central Nervous System (CNS) to muscles and glands.

By inhibiting the enzymes that degrade neurotransmitters or inhibiting reuptake at the synapse.

Causes vasodilation and increases capillary permeability.

They engulf pathogens and clean up the injured site.

They produce an integrated response.

Repeated use of drugs that act as agonists.

It leads to the need for more of the drug to achieve the same effect.

A signal or reminder related to the conditions present when the information was encoded.

Memory cells rapidly give rise to a new clone of specific lymphocytes.

HPV vaccine against cervical cancer and Hepatitis B.

It suggests that short-term memory is complex, capable of processing and storing data, and has subdivisions for different types of data.

To ensure neither the subjects nor the researchers know who is receiving the trial treatment, preventing bias in results.

The process by which myelin develops around axon fibers.

Alterations in the production, release, breakdown, or re-uptake of a neurotransmitter.

The voluntary movement of skeletal muscles.

Agonists and Antagonists.

Type of disease, effectiveness of the vaccine, and density of the population.

They bind to specific receptors, blocking the action of the neurotransmitter at a synapse.

Automatically, without conscious thought.

Sympathetic and Parasympathetic.

Decreases contraction of cardiac muscles and cardiac output.

They allow repeated stimulation of the pathway, similar to an echo.

Protein molecules that signal specific white blood cells to accumulate at the site of infection.

Sensory and motor neurons.

It is said to have been 'selected' by the antigen.

Protects most community members.

At birth, but it continues from birth to adolescence.

Alzheimer’s disease and Depression.

It is the center of conscious thought.

One type of antibody molecule that is specific to one type of antigen.

The connection point where neurons connect with other neurons or muscle fibers.

Only 15 recorded cases.

Doctors must inform the local authority if they diagnose the condition.

It obtains information from the sensory area and sends impulses to appropriate skeletal muscles.

Rehearsal is regarded as a shallow form of encoding information into LTM.

Information organized into logical categories is more easily transferred from STM to LTM.

Information from one side of the body is processed in the opposite side of the cerebrum.

Most sensory images are quickly forgotten.

Molecules, often proteins, located on the surface of cells that trigger a specific immune response.

The fatty tissue that insulates an axon.

Neurons that secrete or respond to dopamine.

The retention of information over a period of time, which can range from 30 seconds to a lifetime.

They are cleared away by phagocytosis.

Hormone release.

Because many more neurons are myelinated during this period.

They diffuse across the cleft and bind to receptors on the postsynaptic neuron's membrane.

By repeating information to yourself, either silently or out loud, to aid memorization.

They help prevent further infection and start tissue repair.

Individuals undergoing cancer treatments or those on immunosuppressants.

Relaxes smooth muscle wall of bronchioles, increasing intake of air.

No evidence that the MMR vaccine causes autism.

They have enough time to be rehearsed and are often transferred to Long-Term Memory (LTM).

When people feel better after receiving a placebo because they believe they are receiving real treatment.

In the Central Nervous System (CNS).

The Sympathetic and Parasympathetic Systems.

The recovery of stored material, involving the recall of information from short-term or long-term memory.

Results from the two groups to determine statistically significant differences.

Can hold about 7 items for approximately 30 seconds.

It helps reduce the spread of diseases.

The involuntary movement of skeletal muscles, smooth muscle, cardiac muscle, and glands.

The quality of memory is affected by the attention given to the task of encoding.

Many recreational drugs affect neurotransmission in the reward pathway.

It resulted in 157,000 cases and 5,000 deaths due to increased numbers of unvaccinated children.

To establish herd immunity to a number of diseases.

It processes information from the right visual field and controls the right side of the body.

The area becomes red and inflamed.

They receive nerve impulses and pass them towards the cell body.

Vaccines made from dead pathogens, such as Poliomyelitis and Hepatitis A.

A population of identical lymphocytes formed through repeated division after antigen binding.

They are used in repetitive activities such as breathing.

They have a weakened immune system and are more vulnerable to opportunistic infections.

HIV is a virus that weakens the immune system, while AIDS is a condition resulting from severe immune system weakening due to HIV.

A technique to improve STM capacity by grouping several smaller units into a meaningful unit.

Encoding.

A phenomenon where items at the beginning and end of a list are more easily remembered than those in the middle.

Prepares the body for fight or flight.

A small case series suggested a link between the vaccine and autism.

To analyze sensory information from the body and the external environment.