Physiology

Parathyroid hormone.

Actin and myosin.

A net of 2 ATP.

It undergoes a power stroke, pulling the actin filament towards the center of the sarcomere.

Generation of end plate potential, depolarization along the Sarco-tubular system, hydrolysis of ATP, but NOT binding of calcium ions to myosin.

In the inner mitochondrial membrane of eukaryotic cells.

Chemiosmosis.

It regulates the secretion of pancreatic enzymes and bicarbonate, and inhibits gastric acid secretion.

ATP, NADH, FADH2, and carbon dioxide.

Parotid gland.

The process where plasmin breaks down fibrin strands in a clot as the wound heals.

A genetic bleeding disorder characterized by the inability of blood to clot properly.

The breakdown of glycogen, a stored form of glucose.

Capillaries.

A, B, AB, and O.

Lipase.

The shortening (contraction) of the sarcomere and the entire muscle fiber.

Sympathetic nervous system.

Jaundice.

It uses ATP directly to transport molecules across the cell membrane through specific protein pumps, such as the sodium-potassium pump.

Proteins that inhibit clotting factors; examples include antithrombin and protein C.

The process where cells release substances from vesicles into the extracellular environment.

The branch of biology that studies the normal functions of living organisms and their parts.

Complex I (NADH dehydrogenase), Complex II (succinate dehydrogenase), Complex III (cytochrome bc1 complex), Complex IV (cytochrome c oxidase), and ATP synthase.

Positive and negative feedback mechanisms.

The presence of acidic chyme in the duodenum.

In the liver and muscles.

Glycogen phosphorylase.

Direct contact, chemical signaling, and electrical signaling.

Filtration of blood and excretion of waste products.

A metabolic pathway that produces glucose from non-carbohydrate precursors, primarily in the liver and kidneys.

The formation of a blood clot (thrombus) within a blood vessel, obstructing normal blood flow.

The concentration of solutes inside and outside the cell is equal, resulting in no net movement of water and maintaining the cell's normal shape and volume.

An action potential traveling along motor neurons to the muscle fibers.

They are actively pumped back into the sarcoplasmic reticulum, leading to muscle relaxation.

To transport deoxygenated blood from the heart to the lungs for oxygenation and return oxygenated blood back to the heart.

Paracrine signaling acts on nearby target cells, while autocrine signaling affects the signaling cell itself.

It couples the movement of one molecule against its concentration gradient to the movement of another molecule down its concentration gradient, utilizing energy stored in the electrochemical gradient.

A form of passive transport where molecules move from an area of higher concentration to an area of lower concentration.

A passive transport specific to water molecules, moving across a selectively permeable membrane.

The hunger hormone.

The concentration of solutes outside the cell is higher, causing water to move out, leading to cell shrinkage or death.

Exposure to ultraviolet B (UVB) radiation from sunlight.

In the mitochondrial matrix.

Movement of air into and out of the lungs, involving diaphragm contraction and rib muscle expansion during inhalation, and relaxation during exhalation.

The presence or absence of specific antigens on the surface of red blood cells.

To prevent excessive bleeding and promote wound healing.

Hemoglobin.

About 32-34 ATP molecules.

Passive transport and active transport.

Eight main blood types: A+, A-, B+, B-, AB+, AB-, O+, and O-.

The primary blood pigment responsible for the red color, found in red blood cells.

Stomach.

1-alpha-hydroxylase.

Axon hillock.

In the alveoli, tiny air sacs in the lungs.

The part of a neuron that releases neurotransmitters.

The stable internal environment of an organism.

Oxygen.

Anti-B antibodies.

Both A and B antigens.

Semipermeable membrane.

It triggers gallbladder contraction to release bile and promotes satiety.

They assist in the transport of molecules across the cell membrane.

Glucagon and cortisol.

Glucagon.

Parathyroid hormone (PTH).

The sarcomere.

Cellular, tissue, organ, and systemic levels.

The movement of molecules against their concentration gradient, requiring energy, usually in the form of ATP.

It regulates gastric acid secretion and the movement of food through the digestive system.

2 ATPs per glucose.

Phagocytosis (cellular 'eating') and pinocytosis (cellular 'drinking').

They are closed by their activation agents.

It stimulates appetite and regulates food intake.

A total of 36-38 ATP molecules per molecule of glucose, depending on cell type and conditions.

Metabolic acidosis.

A condition characterized by an excess of carbon dioxide in the blood, leading to increased blood acidity.

A condition characterized by elevated pH and decreased blood acidity, often due to excessive loss of acids or increased bicarbonate levels.

ATP.

Widening of the trachea, increased heart rate, and liver stimulation for glucose release.

The presence of food in the stomach, particularly proteins.

A process by which cells take in substances from the external environment by engulfing them with the cell membrane, forming vesicles.

Na – glucose cotransport.

An antigen that determines whether a person is Rh-positive (+) or Rh-negative (-).

Lactate, amino acids, and glycerol.

Clot formation in an artery, which can lead to myocardial infarction (heart attack) or stroke.

No ABO antibodies and RH antibody.

The process by which cells convert glucose and oxygen into energy, carbon dioxide, and water.

Aorta.

The process within cells that utilizes oxygen to produce energy (ATP) and releases carbon dioxide as a byproduct.

A semi-liquid substance formed in the stomach by mixing food with gastric juices.

Anemia, hypoxia, and jaundice, but NOT hypertension.

Sickle cell anemia.

The release of hormones into the bloodstream that travel to distant target cells.

A yellowish pigment produced from the breakdown of heme, primarily processed by the liver and excreted in bile.

The concentration of solutes outside the cell is lower, resulting in water moving into the cell, which may cause it to swell and burst.

It acts as a hormone regulating calcium and phosphate homeostasis.

Villi absorb nutrients across the lining of the small intestine into the bloodstream.

Lactic acid fermentation or alcohol fermentation.

The relative concentration of solutes inside and outside a cell, determining the movement of water across the cell membrane.

Dendrite.

They bind to troponin, causing a conformational change that exposes binding sites on actin filaments.

7-dehydrocholesterol.

Ventilation, gas exchange, transport of gases, and cellular respiration.

To maintain blood glucose levels during fasting, prolonged exercise, or low carbohydrate intake.

Clot formation in a vein, commonly in the deep veins of the legs (DVT) or in the lungs (pulmonary embolism).

Obstruction of a blood vessel by an embolus, which can be a dislodged solid, liquid, or gas.

Glycolysis breaks down one molecule of glucose into two molecules of pyruvate, producing a net of 2 ATP and NADH.

Duodenum, jejunum, and ileum.

Facilitated diffusion.

When iron in hemoglobin is in the oxidized (ferric) state, causing the blood to appear brownish.

Acetylcholine.

Kidney.

It stores calcium ions (Ca2+).

Glycolysis, Krebs Cycle, and Electron Transport Chain.

Water is reabsorbed, and waste material is formed into feces.

The process by which living organisms obtain oxygen and release carbon dioxide, involving inhalation and exhalation.

Bile from the liver aids in the breakdown of fats in the duodenum.

It reduces calcium levels by inhibiting osteoclast activity and decreasing calcium reabsorption in the kidneys.

Oxygen binds to hemoglobin in red blood cells to form oxyhemoglobin, which is transported to tissues.

The breakdown of food into smaller, absorbable molecules and the absorption of nutrients by the body.

A hormone produced by G cells in the stomach that regulates digestive processes.