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What is the definition of immunity?

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Immunity refers to the ability of an organism to recognize and defend itself against specific pathogens or antigens, meaning it is 'free from burden'.

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Immunity and Immune Response

What is the definition of immunity?

Immunity refers to the ability of an organism to recognize and defend itself against specific pathogens or antigens, meaning it is 'free from burden'.

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Immunity and Immune Response

What is the immune response and what does it involve?

The immune response is the third line of defense that involves the production of antibodies and the generation of specialized lymphocytes against specific antigens.

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Immunity and Immune Response

What is an antigen?

An antigen is a molecule from a pathogen or foreign organism that provokes a specific immune response.

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Pathogens and Disease Mechanisms

What are the four main types of pathogens that cause disease?

The four main types of pathogens that cause disease are Viruses, Bacteria, Parasites, and Fungi.

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Pathogens and Disease Mechanisms

What are the direct mechanisms of tissue damage by pathogens?

The direct mechanisms of tissue damage by pathogens include:

  1. Exotoxin production
  2. Endotoxin
  3. Direct cytopathic effect
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Pathogens and Disease Mechanisms

What are the indirect mechanisms of tissue damage by pathogens?

The indirect mechanisms of tissue damage by pathogens include:

  1. Immune complexes
  2. Anti-host antibody
  3. Cell-mediated immunity
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Pathogens and Disease Mechanisms

Which infectious agents are associated with direct mechanisms of tissue damage?

Infectious agents associated with direct mechanisms include:

  • Streptococcus pyogenes
  • Staphylococcus aureus
  • Corynebacterium diphtheriae
  • Clostridium tetani
  • Vibrio cholerae
  • Escherichia coli
  • Haemophilus influenzae
  • Salmonella typhi
  • Shigella
  • Pseudomonas aeruginosa
  • Yersinia pestis
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Pathogens and Disease Mechanisms

Which infectious agents are associated with indirect mechanisms of tissue damage?

Infectious agents associated with indirect mechanisms include:

  • Hepatitis B virus
  • Malaria
  • Streptococcus pyogenes
  • Treponema pallidum
  • Mycobacterium tuberculosis
  • Mycobacterium leprae
  • Lymphocytic choriomeningitis virus
  • Borrelia burgdorferi
  • Schistosoma mansoni
  • Herpes simplex virus
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Pathogens and Disease Mechanisms

What diseases are caused by pathogens that utilize direct mechanisms of tissue damage?

Diseases caused by pathogens utilizing direct mechanisms include:

  • Tonsillitis, scarlet fever
  • Boils, toxic shock syndrome, food poisoning
  • Diphtheria
  • Tetanus
  • Cholera
  • Gram-negative sepsis
  • Meningitis, pneumonia
  • Typhoid
  • Bacillary dysentery
  • Wound infection
  • Plague
  • Variola
  • Chickenpox, shingles
  • Hepatitis
  • Polio virus
  • Measles virus
  • Influenza virus
  • Herpes simplex virus
  • Human herpes virus 8 (HHV8)
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Pathogens and Disease Mechanisms

What diseases are caused by pathogens that utilize indirect mechanisms of tissue damage?

Diseases caused by pathogens utilizing indirect mechanisms include:

  • Kidney disease
  • Vascular deposits
  • Glomerulonephritis
  • Kidney damage in secondary syphilis
  • Transient renal deposits
  • Rheumatic fever
  • Hemolytic anemia
  • Tuberculosis
  • Tuberculoid leprosy
  • Aseptic meningitis
  • Lyme arthritis
  • Schistosomiasis
  • Herpes stromal keratitis
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Components of the Immune System

What are the two main types of stem cells in the immune system?

The two main types of stem cells in the immune system are lymphoid stem cells and myeloid stem cells.

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Components of the Immune System

What types of cells do lymphoid stem cells differentiate into?

Lymphoid stem cells differentiate into B cells and T cells, which are collectively known as lymphocytes.

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Components of the Immune System

What types of cells do myeloid stem cells differentiate into?

Myeloid stem cells differentiate into several types of cells including Monocytes, Basophils, Eosinophils, and Neutrophils.

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Components of the Immune System

What is the significance of erythrocytes and platelets in the context of white blood cells?

Erythrocytes (red blood cells) and platelets are excluded from the classification of white blood cells; all other cells derived from stem cells are considered white blood cells.

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Components of the Immune System

What are the primary functions of mast cells in the immune response?

  • Dilates blood vessels and induces inflammation through the release of histamine and heparin.
  • Recruits macrophages and neutrophils.
  • Involved in wound healing and defense against pathogens.
  • Responsible for allergic reactions.
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Components of the Immune System

Where are macrophages located and what is their primary function?

Macrophages migrate from blood vessels into tissues and are phagocytic cells that consume foreign pathogens and cancer cells. They also stimulate the response of other immune cells.

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Components of the Immune System

What is the role of natural killer (NK) cells in the immune system?

Natural killer (NK) cells circulate in blood and migrate into tissues to kill tumor cells and virus-infected cells.

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Components of the Immune System

What is the function of dendritic cells in the immune response?

Dendritic cells present in epithelial tissue and tissues of the digestive tract migrate to lymph nodes upon activation. They present antigens on their surface (as antigen presenting cells/APCs), thereby triggering adaptive immunity.

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Components of the Immune System

What is the function of monocytes in the immune system?

Monocytes are stored in the spleen and move through blood vessels to infected tissues, where they differentiate into macrophages and dendritic cells in response to inflammation.

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Components of the Immune System

What are the characteristics and functions of neutrophils?

  • First responders at the site of infection/trauma
  • Represents 50-60% of all leukocytes
  • Releases toxins that kill or inhibit bacteria and fungi
  • Recruits other immune cells to the site of infection
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Components of the Immune System

What is the role of basophils in the immune response?

  • Responsible for defense against parasites
  • Releases histamines that cause inflammation
  • Can also be involved in allergic reactions
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Components of the Immune System

What are the functions of eosinophils?

  • Releases toxins that kill bacteria and parasites
  • Can also cause tissue damage
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Components of the Immune System

What are the characteristics of B lymphocytes?

  • Produced and matures in the bone marrow, found in blood and lymph tissues
  • Differentiates into plasma cells and memory cells
  • Plasma cells are activated B cells that produce antibodies
  • Memory cells are long-lived B cells that remember past antigen exposure
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Components of the Immune System

What is the function of T lymphocytes in the immune system?

  • Produced in the bone marrow and matures in the thymus, found in blood and lymph tissues
  • Differentiates into T helper cells and cytotoxic T cells
  • T helper cells enhance and promote the actions of other immune cells
  • Cytotoxic T cells secrete lymphokines and destroy target cells
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First and Second Lines of Defense

What are the components of the first line of defense in the non-specific immune system?

The components of the first line of defense include:

  1. Skin
  2. Mucous membranes
  3. Secretions of skin and mucous membranes
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First and Second Lines of Defense

What are the components of the second line of defense in the non-specific immune system?

The components of the second line of defense include:

  1. Phagocytic white blood cells
  2. Antimicrobial proteins
  3. The inflammatory response
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Humoral Immunity and Antibody Production

What are the components of the third line of defense in the specific immune system?

The components of the third line of defense include:

  1. Lymphocytes
  2. Antibodies
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Innate vs Adaptive Immunity

What is the activation difference between innate and adaptive immunity?

FeatureInnate ImmunityAdaptive Immunity
ActivationActive prior to exposure to any microbe/antigenActivated by exposure to microbes/antigens
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Innate vs Adaptive Immunity

How does the lag phase differ between innate and adaptive immunity?

FeatureInnate ImmunityAdaptive Immunity
Lag PhaseAbsent (immediate response)Present (response takes a few days)
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Innate vs Adaptive Immunity

What is the specificity of innate immunity compared to adaptive immunity?

FeatureInnate ImmunityAdaptive Immunity
SpecificityLimited (targets all pathogens)High (targets specific pathogens)
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Innate vs Adaptive Immunity

How does memory function in innate immunity versus adaptive immunity?

Innate immunity has no memory, resulting in the same response during the first encounter, while adaptive immunity has memory, leading to an amplified response upon subsequent encounters.

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First and Second Lines of Defense

What are the two layers of the skin and their functions?

The skin consists of two layers:

  1. Epidermis: A thin outer layer of epithelial tissue that contains Langerhans cells, dead cells, and keratin, which makes it waterproof.
  2. Dermis: A thick inner layer of connective tissue that provides strength and elasticity to the skin.
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First and Second Lines of Defense

What is the structure and function of mucous membranes in the first line of defense?

Mucous membranes line the gastrointestinal, genitourinary, and respiratory tracts and consist of two layers:

  1. Outer Epithelial Layer: Secretes mucus to maintain moist surfaces.
  2. Inner Connective Layer: Provides support and structure to the epithelial layer.
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First and Second Lines of Defense

How does the lacrimal apparatus contribute to the first line of defense?

The lacrimal apparatus contributes to the first line of defense by continually washing and blinking, which prevents microbes from settling on the eye surface.

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First and Second Lines of Defense

What is the role of saliva in the immune defense system?

Saliva washes microbes from teeth and mouth mucous membranes, helping to reduce the risk of infection.

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First and Second Lines of Defense

How does mucus contribute to the body's defense against pathogens?

Mucus is a thick secretion that traps many microbes, preventing them from entering the body.

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First and Second Lines of Defense

What function do nose hairs serve in the immune system?

Nose hairs are coated with mucus and filter dust, pollen, and microbes, helping to keep the respiratory system clear of pathogens.

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First and Second Lines of Defense

What is the significance of coughing and sneezing in immune defense?

Coughing and sneezing expel foreign objects from the respiratory tract, helping to prevent infection.

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First and Second Lines of Defense

How does urination contribute to the cleansing of the urinary tract?

Urination cleanses the urethra, helping to remove microbes and prevent urinary tract infections.

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First and Second Lines of Defense

What is the purpose of vaginal secretion in the immune system?

Vaginal secretion removes microbes from the genital tract, helping to maintain a healthy environment and prevent infections.

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First and Second Lines of Defense

What is sebum and what role does it play in chemical defenses?

Sebum is an oily substance produced by sebaceous glands that forms a protective layer over the skin. It contains unsaturated fatty acids which inhibit the growth of certain pathogenic bacteria and fungi.

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First and Second Lines of Defense

What components are found in perspiration and what is its function in chemical defenses?

Perspiration is produced by sweat glands and contains lysozyme and acids, which help to inhibit microbial growth on the skin.

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First and Second Lines of Defense

What is lysozyme and where is it found?

Lysozyme is an enzyme that breaks down gram-positive cell walls. It is found in nasal secretions, saliva, and tears, contributing to the body's chemical defenses.

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First and Second Lines of Defense

What are gastric juices and how do they contribute to chemical defenses?

Gastric juices are a mixture of hydrochloric acid, enzymes, and mucus with a pH between 1.2 - 3. They destroy most microbes and toxins, serving as a chemical defense in the stomach.

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First and Second Lines of Defense

What are transferrins and how do they inhibit bacterial growth?

Transferrins are iron-binding proteins in blood that inhibit bacterial growth by reducing the availability of iron, which is essential for bacterial proliferation.

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Inflammation Process and Symptoms

What triggers inflammation in the body?

Inflammation is triggered by tissue damage due to factors such as infection, heat, wounds, and other injuries.

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Inflammation Process and Symptoms

What are the four major symptoms of inflammation?

The four major symptoms of inflammation are:

  1. Redness
  2. Pain
  3. Heat
  4. Swelling
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Inflammation Process and Symptoms

What is vasodilation and what triggers it during inflammation?

Vasodilation is the increase in diameter of blood vessels. It is triggered by chemicals released by damaged cells, including histamine, kinins, prostaglandins, and leukotrienes.

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Inflammation Process and Symptoms

What is margination in the context of phagocyte migration during inflammation?

Margination is the process in which phagocytes stick to the lining of blood vessels during inflammation, facilitating their movement towards the site of injury.

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Inflammation Process and Symptoms

What is diapedesis and how does it relate to phagocyte migration?

Diapedesis, also known as emigration, is the process by which phagocytes squeeze between endothelial cells of blood vessels to enter surrounding tissue during inflammation.

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Inflammation Process and Symptoms

What is the role of phagocytes in the inflammation process?

Phagocytes are attracted to the site of infection through chemotaxis and are responsible for destroying microbes, as well as dead and damaged host cells.

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Inflammation Process and Symptoms

What occurs during the tissue repair stage of inflammation?

During the tissue repair stage, dead and damaged cells are replaced to restore the affected tissue.

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Inflammation Process and Symptoms

What are the four main stages of the inflammation process as illustrated in the diagram?

  1. Tissue Damage: Bacteria enter the skin and cause tissue damage.

  2. Vasodilation and Increased Permeability: Blood vessels dilate, increasing permeability, leading to blood clot formation and abscess development.

  3. Phagocyte Migration and Phagocytosis: Neutrophils and monocytes migrate from blood vessels to engulf bacteria.

  4. Tissue Repair: Formation of a scab and regeneration of the epidermis and dermis.

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Inflammation Process and Symptoms

What role do chemical mediators like histamine and prostaglandins play in the inflammation process?

Chemical mediators such as histamine, kinins, prostaglandins, and leukotrienes are released by damaged cells. They contribute to:

  • Vasodilation: Widening of blood vessels to increase blood flow.
  • Increased Permeability: Allowing immune cells to exit the bloodstream and reach the site of injury.
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Inflammation Process and Symptoms

What is the significance of margination and emigration in the inflammatory response?

Margination refers to the process where phagocytes stick to the endothelium of blood vessels, while emigration is the subsequent squeezing of phagocytes between endothelial cells to exit the bloodstream. This is crucial for:

  • Ensuring that immune cells reach the site of infection or injury.
  • Facilitating phagocytosis of invading bacteria.
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Inflammation Process and Symptoms

How does tissue repair occur following inflammation?

Tissue repair involves:

  1. Formation of a Scab: Protects the underlying tissue during healing.
  2. Regeneration of Epidermis: The outer skin layer is restored.
  3. Regeneration of Dermis: The deeper skin layer is also repaired, restoring structural integrity.
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Phagocytosis and Immune Cell Functions

What is the first step in the process of phagocytosis?

The first step is chemotaxis and adherence of the microbe to the phagocyte.

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Phagocytosis and Immune Cell Functions

What occurs during the ingestion phase of phagocytosis?

During the ingestion phase, the phagocyte extends its plasma membrane to surround and engulf the microbe.

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Phagocytosis and Immune Cell Functions

What is formed when the phagocyte engulfs the microbe?

When the phagocyte engulfs the microbe, a phagosome is formed, which is a phagocytic vesicle containing the microbe.

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Phagocytosis and Immune Cell Functions

What happens when the phagosome fuses with a lysosome?

When the phagosome fuses with a lysosome, it forms a phagolysosome, where digestive enzymes are present to break down the ingested microbe.

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Phagocytosis and Immune Cell Functions

What role do digestive enzymes play in phagocytosis?

Digestive enzymes break down the ingested microbe within the phagolysosome during the digestion phase of phagocytosis.

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Phagocytosis and Immune Cell Functions

What is contained within the residual body formed during phagocytosis?

The residual body contains indigestible material that remains after the digestion of the microbe.

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Phagocytosis and Immune Cell Functions

What is the final step of phagocytosis?

The final step of phagocytosis is the discharge of waste materials from the phagocyte, which includes the residual body.

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Components of the Immune System

What are mast cells and where are they typically found?

Mast cells are a type of immune cell found in tissues such as the skin and near blood vessels.

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Immunity and Immune Response

How are mast cells activated?

Mast cells are activated when an antigen binds to a specific type of antibody called IgE that is attached to receptors on the mast cell.

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Inflammation Process and Symptoms

What substances do activated mast cells release and what is their role?

Activated mast cells release substances like histamine that contribute to inflammation.

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Pathogens and Disease Mechanisms

What role do mast cells play in allergic responses?

Mast cells are important and involved in allergic responses.

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T Lymphocytes and Cell-Mediated Immunity

What is the function of the thymus in the adaptive immune system?

The thymus is a glandular organ near the heart where T cells learn their jobs.

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Components of the Immune System

What role does the bone marrow play in the immune system?

The bone marrow is a blood-producing tissue located inside certain bones, where blood stem cells give rise to all different types of blood cells.

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Components of the Immune System

How does the spleen contribute to the immune response?

The spleen serves as a filter for the blood, removing old and damaged red blood cells, as well as infectious agents, and activating lymphocytes.

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Components of the Immune System

What is the purpose of lymph nodes in the immune system?

Lymph nodes are small organs that filter out dead cells, antigens, and other substances to present to lymphocytes.

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Components of the Immune System

What is the function of lymphatic vessels in the immune system?

Lymphatic vessels collect fluid (lymph) that has leaked out from the blood into the tissues and return it to circulation.

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T Lymphocytes and Cell-Mediated Immunity

What is the primary function of T cells or T Lymphocytes?

T cells are responsible for cell-mediated immunity, which involves the direct attack of infected or cancerous cells.

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Components of the Immune System

Where do T cells mature in the human body?

T cells mature in the thymus gland.

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Humoral Immunity and Antibody Production

What is the primary function of B cells or B Lymphocytes?

B cells are responsible for antibody-mediated immunity, which involves the production of antibodies to neutralize pathogens.

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Components of the Immune System

Where do B cells mature in the human body?

B cells mature in the bone marrow.

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Components of the Immune System

What is the role of pluripotent stem cells in the immune system?

Pluripotent stem cells are the origin of all blood cells, including immune cells. They have the ability to differentiate into various cell types, including lymphocyte stem cells, which further develop into B cells and T cells.

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Components of the Immune System

How do lymphocyte stem cells differentiate into B cells and T cells?

Lymphocyte stem cells can differentiate into B cells in the bone marrow or fetal liver, while T cells develop from lymphocyte stem cells that migrate to the thymus for maturation.

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Components of the Immune System

What is the function of the thymus in T cell development?

The thymus is responsible for the maturation of T cells from lymphocyte stem cells. It provides an environment for T cells to develop and undergo selection processes to ensure self-tolerance and functionality.

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Components of the Immune System

What are the primary locations where B cells and T cells are found in the body?

B cells are primarily found in lymphoid tissues such as lymph nodes, spleen, blood, and lymph, while T cells are also present in these tissues but are specifically matured in the thymus before entering circulation.

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T Lymphocytes and Cell-Mediated Immunity

What is the primary site of development for T cells during lymphocyte activation?

The primary site of development for T cells is the thymus.

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B Lymphocytes and Humoral Immunity

Where do B cells develop immunocompetence?

B cells develop immunocompetence in the bone marrow.

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T Lymphocytes and Cell-Mediated Immunity

What happens to lymphocytes after they leave the thymus or bone marrow?

After leaving the thymus or bone marrow, lymphocytes 'seed' secondary lymphoid organs, where they encounter antigens and become fully activated.

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T Lymphocytes and Cell-Mediated Immunity

What is the role of secondary lymphoid organs in lymphocyte activation?

Secondary lymphoid organs are the sites of antigen challenge and the final differentiation of lymphocytes into fully activated B and T cells.

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T Lymphocytes and Cell-Mediated Immunity

How do mature immunocompetent lymphocytes circulate in the body?

Mature immunocompetent lymphocytes recirculate continuously in the bloodstream and lymph, as well as throughout the lymphoid organs of the body.

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T Lymphocytes and Cell-Mediated Immunity

What role do T Lymphocytes play in the immune response?

T Lymphocytes are crucial in regulating the production of antibodies by B cells. They include:

  1. Helper T Cells: Enhance and promote the action of other immune cells.
  2. Cytotoxic/Killer T Cells: Have suppressive or cytotoxic effects.
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T Lymphocytes and Cell-Mediated Immunity

What are the surface proteins found on T cells and their significance?

T cells have surface proteins known as cluster determinants (CDs). These include:

  • Helper T Cells: CD4 positive, which enhance and promote the action of other immune cells.
  • Cytotoxic T Cells: CD8 positive, which exert suppressive or cytotoxic effects.
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Adaptive Immunity

What are the key attributes of adaptive immunity?

The key attributes of adaptive immunity are:

  1. Antigenic specificity - Ability to recognize specific antigens.
  2. Diversity - Capability to respond to a wide variety of antigens.
  3. Immunologic memory - The ability to remember past infections for faster response upon re-exposure.
  4. Self/ non-self recognition - Distinguishing between the body's own cells and foreign invaders.
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Immunity and Immune Response

What is antigenic specificity in the immune system?

Antigenic specificity refers to the immune system's ability to recognize and selectively eliminate specific foreign microorganisms or antigens, distinguishing subtle differences among them.

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Immunity and Immune Response

How does the immune system demonstrate diversity?

The immune system can recognize billions of unique structures on foreign antigens, showcasing its vast diversity in responding to various pathogens.

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Immunity and Immune Response

What is immunological memory and its significance?

Immunological memory is the immune system's ability to remember an antigen after initial exposure, leading to a heightened state of reactivity upon subsequent exposures to the same antigen.

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Immunity and Immune Response

What does self/non-self recognition mean in the context of the immune system?

Self/non-self recognition is the immune system's capability to distinguish Self Antigens from Non-Self or Foreign Antigens, ensuring that the immune response is directed only against foreign antigens.

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Humoral Immunity and Antibody Production

What are the two main divisions of the Adaptive Immune System?

The two main divisions of the Adaptive Immune System are Humoral Immunity and Cell Mediated Immunity.

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Humoral Immunity and Antibody Production

What type of lymphocytes provide Humoral Immunity?

Humoral Immunity is provided by B Lymphocytes.

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T Lymphocytes and Cell-Mediated Immunity

What type of lymphocytes provide Cell Mediated Immunity?

Cell Mediated Immunity is provided by T Lymphocytes.

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Humoral Immunity and Antibody Production

What types of antigens can Humoral Immunity recognize?

Humoral Immunity can recognize Protein, Polysaccharide, Phospholipid, and Nucleic Acid Antigens.

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T Lymphocytes and Cell-Mediated Immunity

What types of antigens can Cell Mediated Immunity recognize?

Cell Mediated Immunity can recognize only Protein Antigens.

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Humoral Immunity and Antibody Production

How does Humoral Immunity act against antigens?

Humoral Immunity can act against soluble or free antigens.

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T Lymphocytes and Cell-Mediated Immunity

How does Cell Mediated Immunity recognize antigens?

Cell Mediated Immunity recognizes antigens presented by APCs with Class I or Class II MHC Molecules.

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Humoral Immunity and Antibody Production

What types of pathogens does Humoral Immunity provide immunity against?

Humoral Immunity provides immunity to extracellular bacteria, viruses, and toxins.

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T Lymphocytes and Cell-Mediated Immunity

What types of pathogens does Cell Mediated Immunity provide immunity against?

Cell Mediated Immunity provides immunity to intracellular bacteria, viruses, fungi, and protozoa.

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Humoral Immunity and Antibody Production

What types of hypersensitivity reactions are caused by Humoral Immunity?

Humoral Immunity causes Type I, II, and III Hypersensitivity reactions.

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T Lymphocytes and Cell-Mediated Immunity

What type of hypersensitivity reaction is caused by Cell Mediated Immunity?

Cell Mediated Immunity causes Type IV Hypersensitivity reactions.

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Major Histocompatibility Complex and Antigen Prese...

What is the function of Major Histocompatibility Complex (MHC) in the immune system?

The Major Histocompatibility Complex (MHC) displays cell-associated antigens for recognition by T cells, facilitating the immune response.

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Major Histocompatibility Complex and Antigen Prese...

What are the two types of Major Histocompatibility Complex (MHC)?

The two types of Major Histocompatibility Complex (MHC) are Class I MHC and Class II MHC.

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Major Histocompatibility Complex and Antigen Prese...

What are the two classes of Major Histocompatibility Complex (MHC) and where are they present?

The two classes of MHC are:

  1. Class I MHC: Present on all nucleated cells.
  2. Class II MHC: Present on macrophages, dendritic cells, and B cells.
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Major Histocompatibility Complex and Antigen Prese...

What is the role of Antigen-Presenting Cells (APCs) in the immune response?

Antigen-Presenting Cells (APCs) play a crucial role in the immune response by engulfing pathogens (like bacteria) and presenting their antigens on their surface using MHC molecules, which helps activate T cells.

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Major Histocompatibility Complex and Antigen Prese...

What does MHC stand for and what is its significance in the immune system?

MHC stands for Major Histocompatibility Complex. It is significant in the immune system as it is responsible for presenting antigen fragments on the surface of APCs, which is essential for T cell recognition and activation.

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Major Histocompatibility Complex and Antigen Prese...

Which cells are classified as Antigen-Presenting Cells (APCs)?

The cells classified as Antigen-Presenting Cells (APCs) include dendritic cells, macrophages, and B lymphocytes.

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Humoral Immunity and Antibody Production

What is the first step in the process of humoral immunity?

The Antigen enters the body.

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Humoral Immunity and Antibody Production

What role do Antigen Presenting Cells (APCs) play in humoral immunity?

APCs, such as Macrophages and Dendritic Cells, get activated and bind with Major Histocompatibility Complex II (MHC II) to form a complex.

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Humoral Immunity and Antibody Production

How do Immature T Cells become activated in humoral immunity?

Immature T Cells bind to the complex formed by APCs and MHC II with the help of T-Cell Receptors (TCR).

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Humoral Immunity and Antibody Production

What is the outcome of the activation of CD4+ Cells in humoral immunity?

Activated CD4+ Cells release cytokines IL-2, IL-4, IL-5, and IL-6, which activate B Cells.

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Humoral Immunity and Antibody Production

What are the two types of cells that B Cells mature into after activation?

B Cells mature into Plasma Cells and Memory Cells.

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Humoral Immunity and Antibody Production

What is the function of Plasma Cells in humoral immunity?

Plasma Cells produce antibodies.

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Humoral Immunity and Antibody Production

What is the role of Memory Cells in humoral immunity?

Memory Cells maintain immunological memory and protect the body from future exposure or infections from that particular antigen or microorganism.

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Humoral Immunity and Antibody Production

What happens to the microbial antigen after it is ingested by the APC?

After ingestion, the microbial antigen is partially digested by the APC, and the resulting fragments bind to MHC II molecules to form an MHC II/Ag complex on the surface of the APC, which is essential for T cell activation.

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Humoral Immunity and Antibody Production

How does the Helper T cell interact with the antigen presented by the macrophage?

The Helper T cell binds to the MHC II/Ag complex presented by the macrophage, which is specific for the presented antigen. This binding is essential for the activation of the T cell and subsequent immune response.

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Humoral Immunity and Antibody Production

What is the role of the macrophage in the humoral immunity process?

The macrophage acts as an Antigen-Presenting Cell (APC) that engulfs microorganisms carrying T-dependent antigens, processes them, and presents antigen fragments on its surface along with Self (MHC) molecules.

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Humoral Immunity and Antibody Production

How does the helper T cell interact with the macrophage during humoral immunity?

The helper T cell's receptor binds to the antigen fragment presented by the macrophage, facilitating the activation of the T cell.

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Humoral Immunity and Antibody Production

What is the function of IL-2 in the activation of B cells?

IL-2 is a growth factor that is released by the activated helper T cell to stimulate the appropriate B cell, promoting its activation and proliferation.

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Humoral Immunity and Antibody Production

What are the three main steps illustrated in the humoral immunity process?

  1. The macrophage engulfs a microorganism and presents antigen fragments.

  2. The helper T cell binds to the antigen fragment on the macrophage.

  3. The helper T cell releases IL-2 to activate the B cell.

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Humoral Immunity and Antibody Production

What is the significance of T-dependent antigens in humoral immunity?

T-dependent antigens require the assistance of helper T cells for B cell activation, leading to the production of antibodies against the specific antigen.

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Humoral Immunity and Antibody Production

What is the role of T helper cells in humoral immunity?

T helper cells interact with B cells, leading to the differentiation of B cells into Plasma cells and memory cells.

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Humoral Immunity and Antibody Production

What do Plasma cells produce in the humoral immunity process?

Plasma cells produce secreted antibodies, which are essential for targeting and neutralizing antigens.

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Humoral Immunity and Antibody Production

What are the two types of cells that B cells differentiate into upon interaction with T helper cells?

B cells differentiate into Plasma cells and memory cells upon interaction with T helper cells.

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Humoral Immunity and Antibody Production

What are the three differences in the secondary response carried out by memory cells compared to the primary response?

  1. Affinity: Memory cells produce antibodies that bind with greater affinity to their antigens than those produced in the initial response.

  2. Response Time: The response time is much faster than the primary response.

  3. Antibody Production: A greater number of antibodies are produced during the secondary response.

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Humoral Immunity and Antibody Production

What initiates the humoral immune response during the first exposure to an antigen?

The humoral immune response begins with the antigen being engulfed by an antigen-presenting cell.

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Humoral Immunity and Antibody Production

What role do Helper T cells play in the humoral immune response?

Helper T cells stimulate B cells and facilitate their differentiation into plasma cells that produce antibodies.

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Humoral Immunity and Antibody Production

What do plasma cells produce in the humoral immune response?

Plasma cells produce secreted antibodies that defend against extracellular pathogens.

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Humoral Immunity and Antibody Production

What is the significance of Memory Helper T cells in the humoral immune response?

Memory Helper T cells are crucial for a faster and more effective response during a second exposure to the same antigen, leading to the activation of Memory B cells and subsequent production of antibodies.

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Humoral Immunity and Antibody Production

How do Memory B cells contribute to the humoral immune response upon re-exposure to an antigen?

Upon re-exposure to the antigen, Memory B cells quickly differentiate into plasma cells, leading to a rapid production of antibodies.

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Immunity and Immune Response

What is induced immunity and how does it function?

Induced immunity is the use of antibodies to resist specific diseases. It can be classified into two main types: active immunity and passive immunity.

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Immunity and Immune Response

What is active immunity and how is it acquired?

Active immunity is when antibodies are produced in the body. It can be acquired naturally, such as through catching a cold, or artificially, through vaccination, like the polio vaccination.

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Immunity and Immune Response

What is the difference between natural and artificial active immunity?

Natural active immunity occurs when pathogens enter the body naturally, stimulating the production of antibodies (e.g., catching a cold). Artificial active immunity occurs when pathogens are introduced into the body via a vaccine, prompting antibody production (e.g., polio vaccination).

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Immunity and Immune Response

What is passive immunity and how is it different from active immunity?

Passive immunity involves the introduction of antibodies obtained from another organism into the body, as opposed to active immunity where the body produces its own antibodies.

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Immunity and Immune Response

What are the two types of passive immunity?

The two types of passive immunity are natural and artificial. Natural passive immunity occurs when antibodies enter the body naturally, such as through the placenta to the fetus. Artificial passive immunity involves the injection of antibodies into the body, such as anti-tetanus injections.

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Humoral Immunity and Antibody Production

What is the primary function of antibodies in the immune system?

Antibodies are proteins produced by B cells that identify and neutralize foreign objects such as bacteria and viruses.

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Humoral Immunity and Antibody Production

What is agglutination and how does it benefit the immune response?

Agglutination enhances phagocytosis and reduces the number of infectious units to be dealt with by clustering pathogens together.

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Humoral Immunity and Antibody Production

How does opsonization enhance phagocytosis?

Opsonization involves coating an antigen with antibody, which enhances the ability of phagocytes to recognize and engulf the pathogen.

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Humoral Immunity and Antibody Production

What role do antibodies play in neutralization?

Antibodies block the adhesion of bacteria and viruses to mucosa and also block the active site of toxins, preventing their harmful effects.

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Humoral Immunity and Antibody Production

How do antibodies activate the complement system?

Antibodies can activate the complement system, which leads to the disruption of cells and attracts phagocytic and other defensive immune system cells.

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Humoral Immunity and Antibody Production

What is the significance of inflammation in the context of antibody action?

Inflammation, triggered by the disruption of cells by complement or C-reactive protein, attracts phagocytic and other immune cells to the site of infection.

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Humoral Immunity and Antibody Production

What is antibody-dependent cell-mediated cytotoxicity (ADCC)?

ADCC occurs when antibodies attached to target cells cause destruction by non-specific immune cells, enhancing the immune response against infected or abnormal cells.

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Humoral Immunity and Antibody Production

What is the effect of antibody binding on neutralization of viruses and toxins?

Antibody binding blocks the adhesion of bacteria and viruses to mucosal surfaces and also blocks the active site of toxins, preventing their harmful effects.

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Components of the Immune System

Describe the process of complement activation as a consequence of antibody binding.

Complement activation leads to cell lysis of bacteria, and the disruption of cells by complement or reactive proteins attracts phagocytic and other defensive immune system cells to the site of infection.

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T Lymphocytes and Cell-Mediated Immunity

What is antibody-dependent cell-mediated cytotoxicity?

Antibody-dependent cell-mediated cytotoxicity occurs when antibodies attached to a target cell cause destruction by non-specific immune system cells, enhancing the immune response against infected or abnormal cells.

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Inflammation Process and Symptoms

What is the significance of inflammation in the context of antibody binding?

Inflammation is triggered by the binding of antibodies, which helps to recruit immune cells to the site of infection, facilitating a more effective immune response.

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Humoral Immunity and Antibody Production

What are the main components of an antibody molecule?

An antibody molecule consists of heavy chains and light chains connected by disulfide bonds. It also has an antigen-binding site at the top of the molecule.

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Humoral Immunity and Antibody Production

What is the function of the antigen-binding site in an antibody?

The antigen-binding site in an antibody is responsible for recognizing and binding to specific antigens. This interaction is crucial for the immune response.

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Humoral Immunity and Antibody Production

What is an epitope in the context of antibodies and antigens?

An epitope, also known as an antigenic determinant, is the specific part of an antigen that is recognized and bound by an antibody.

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Humoral Immunity and Antibody Production

How many epitopes can a given antigen have?

Any given antigen may have several epitopes.

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Humoral Immunity and Antibody Production

What is the relationship between epitopes and antibodies?

Each epitope is recognized by a different antibody.

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Humoral Immunity and Antibody Production

What are the five types of heavy chains found in antibodies?

The five types of heavy chains are γ (gamma), δ (delta), α (alpha), μ (mu), and ε (epsilon).

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Humoral Immunity and Antibody Production

How many types of light chains are there in antibodies, and what are they?

There are two types of light chains in antibodies: K (kappa) and λ (lambda).

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Humoral Immunity and Antibody Production

What is the domain structure of heavy and light chains in antibodies?

Heavy chains have 4-5 domains, while light chains have 2 domains.

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Humoral Immunity and Antibody Production

How is an antibody molecule classified based on its chains?

An antibody molecule contains only one type of heavy chain and one type of light chain, which determines its classification into IgG, IgD, IgA, IgM, or IgE.

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Humoral Immunity and Antibody Production

What are the key characteristics of IgG immunoglobulin?

  • Most common immunoglobulin, representing 75-80% of serum Ig.
  • Only antibody capable of crossing the placenta, providing passive immunity to the fetus.
  • Longest half-life of 23 days among all immunoglobulins.
  • Activates complement.
  • Stimulates chemotaxis.
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Humoral Immunity and Antibody Production

What role does IgD play in the immune system?

  • Acts as an antigen receptor on the surface of B cells.
  • Activates basophils and mast cells to produce antimicrobial factors.
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Humoral Immunity and Antibody Production

What is the function of IgE in the immune response?

  • Bound to the surface of mast cells and basophils.
  • Destroys parasitic worms and participates in allergic reactions.
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Humoral Immunity and Antibody Production

What is the primary function of IgA in the body?

IgA is present in body secretions and provides protection against the proliferation of microorganisms in these fluids. It aids in defense against microbes and foreign molecules penetrating the body via cell linings of cavities.

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Humoral Immunity and Antibody Production

How does IgA contribute to passive immunity in infants?

IgA provides passive immunity to infants through the mother's breast milk, helping to protect them from infections during early life.

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Humoral Immunity and Antibody Production

What is the role of IgM in the immune response?

IgM is the first immunoglobulin class produced in a primary response to an antigen (Ag). It serves as the antigen receptor on B cells and is found on their surface alongside IgD. IgM has 10 antigen-binding sites, making it more effective at stimulating complement and facilitating opsonization through binding with Fc receptors on phagocytes.

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Components of the Immune System

What structural feature distinguishes IgM from other immunoglobulins?

IgM is characterized by its pentameric structure, consisting of five Y-shaped antibodies connected by a J chain in the center. This unique structure enhances its ability to bind antigens and activate the complement system.

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