What is the definition of immunity?
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Immunity refers to the ability of an organism to recognize and defend itself against specific pathogens or antigens, meaning it is 'free from burden'.
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What is the definition of immunity?
Immunity refers to the ability of an organism to recognize and defend itself against specific pathogens or antigens, meaning it is 'free from burden'.
What is the immune response and what does it involve?
The immune response is the third line of defense that involves the production of antibodies and the generation of specialized lymphocytes against specific antigens.
What is an antigen?
An antigen is a molecule from a pathogen or foreign organism that provokes a specific immune response.
What are the four main types of pathogens that cause disease?
The four main types of pathogens that cause disease are Viruses, Bacteria, Parasites, and Fungi.
What are the direct mechanisms of tissue damage by pathogens?
The direct mechanisms of tissue damage by pathogens include:
What are the indirect mechanisms of tissue damage by pathogens?
The indirect mechanisms of tissue damage by pathogens include:
Which infectious agents are associated with direct mechanisms of tissue damage?
Infectious agents associated with direct mechanisms include:
Which infectious agents are associated with indirect mechanisms of tissue damage?
Infectious agents associated with indirect mechanisms include:
What diseases are caused by pathogens that utilize direct mechanisms of tissue damage?
Diseases caused by pathogens utilizing direct mechanisms include:
What diseases are caused by pathogens that utilize indirect mechanisms of tissue damage?
Diseases caused by pathogens utilizing indirect mechanisms include:
What are the two main types of stem cells in the immune system?
The two main types of stem cells in the immune system are lymphoid stem cells and myeloid stem cells.
What types of cells do lymphoid stem cells differentiate into?
Lymphoid stem cells differentiate into B cells and T cells, which are collectively known as lymphocytes.
What types of cells do myeloid stem cells differentiate into?
Myeloid stem cells differentiate into several types of cells including Monocytes, Basophils, Eosinophils, and Neutrophils.
What is the significance of erythrocytes and platelets in the context of white blood cells?
Erythrocytes (red blood cells) and platelets are excluded from the classification of white blood cells; all other cells derived from stem cells are considered white blood cells.
What are the primary functions of mast cells in the immune response?
Where are macrophages located and what is their primary function?
Macrophages migrate from blood vessels into tissues and are phagocytic cells that consume foreign pathogens and cancer cells. They also stimulate the response of other immune cells.
What is the role of natural killer (NK) cells in the immune system?
Natural killer (NK) cells circulate in blood and migrate into tissues to kill tumor cells and virus-infected cells.
What is the function of dendritic cells in the immune response?
Dendritic cells present in epithelial tissue and tissues of the digestive tract migrate to lymph nodes upon activation. They present antigens on their surface (as antigen presenting cells/APCs), thereby triggering adaptive immunity.
What is the function of monocytes in the immune system?
Monocytes are stored in the spleen and move through blood vessels to infected tissues, where they differentiate into macrophages and dendritic cells in response to inflammation.
What are the characteristics and functions of neutrophils?
What is the role of basophils in the immune response?
What are the functions of eosinophils?
What are the characteristics of B lymphocytes?
What is the function of T lymphocytes in the immune system?
What are the components of the first line of defense in the non-specific immune system?
The components of the first line of defense include:
What are the components of the second line of defense in the non-specific immune system?
The components of the second line of defense include:
What are the components of the third line of defense in the specific immune system?
The components of the third line of defense include:
What is the activation difference between innate and adaptive immunity?
Feature | Innate Immunity | Adaptive Immunity |
---|---|---|
Activation | Active prior to exposure to any microbe/antigen | Activated by exposure to microbes/antigens |
How does the lag phase differ between innate and adaptive immunity?
Feature | Innate Immunity | Adaptive Immunity |
---|---|---|
Lag Phase | Absent (immediate response) | Present (response takes a few days) |
What is the specificity of innate immunity compared to adaptive immunity?
Feature | Innate Immunity | Adaptive Immunity |
---|---|---|
Specificity | Limited (targets all pathogens) | High (targets specific pathogens) |
How does memory function in innate immunity versus adaptive immunity?
Innate immunity has no memory, resulting in the same response during the first encounter, while adaptive immunity has memory, leading to an amplified response upon subsequent encounters.
What are the two layers of the skin and their functions?
The skin consists of two layers:
What is the structure and function of mucous membranes in the first line of defense?
Mucous membranes line the gastrointestinal, genitourinary, and respiratory tracts and consist of two layers:
How does the lacrimal apparatus contribute to the first line of defense?
The lacrimal apparatus contributes to the first line of defense by continually washing and blinking, which prevents microbes from settling on the eye surface.
What is the role of saliva in the immune defense system?
Saliva washes microbes from teeth and mouth mucous membranes, helping to reduce the risk of infection.
How does mucus contribute to the body's defense against pathogens?
Mucus is a thick secretion that traps many microbes, preventing them from entering the body.
What function do nose hairs serve in the immune system?
Nose hairs are coated with mucus and filter dust, pollen, and microbes, helping to keep the respiratory system clear of pathogens.
What is the significance of coughing and sneezing in immune defense?
Coughing and sneezing expel foreign objects from the respiratory tract, helping to prevent infection.
How does urination contribute to the cleansing of the urinary tract?
Urination cleanses the urethra, helping to remove microbes and prevent urinary tract infections.
What is the purpose of vaginal secretion in the immune system?
Vaginal secretion removes microbes from the genital tract, helping to maintain a healthy environment and prevent infections.
What is sebum and what role does it play in chemical defenses?
Sebum is an oily substance produced by sebaceous glands that forms a protective layer over the skin. It contains unsaturated fatty acids which inhibit the growth of certain pathogenic bacteria and fungi.
What components are found in perspiration and what is its function in chemical defenses?
Perspiration is produced by sweat glands and contains lysozyme and acids, which help to inhibit microbial growth on the skin.
What is lysozyme and where is it found?
Lysozyme is an enzyme that breaks down gram-positive cell walls. It is found in nasal secretions, saliva, and tears, contributing to the body's chemical defenses.
What are gastric juices and how do they contribute to chemical defenses?
Gastric juices are a mixture of hydrochloric acid, enzymes, and mucus with a pH between 1.2 - 3. They destroy most microbes and toxins, serving as a chemical defense in the stomach.
What are transferrins and how do they inhibit bacterial growth?
Transferrins are iron-binding proteins in blood that inhibit bacterial growth by reducing the availability of iron, which is essential for bacterial proliferation.
What triggers inflammation in the body?
Inflammation is triggered by tissue damage due to factors such as infection, heat, wounds, and other injuries.
What are the four major symptoms of inflammation?
The four major symptoms of inflammation are:
What is vasodilation and what triggers it during inflammation?
Vasodilation is the increase in diameter of blood vessels. It is triggered by chemicals released by damaged cells, including histamine, kinins, prostaglandins, and leukotrienes.
What is margination in the context of phagocyte migration during inflammation?
Margination is the process in which phagocytes stick to the lining of blood vessels during inflammation, facilitating their movement towards the site of injury.
What is diapedesis and how does it relate to phagocyte migration?
Diapedesis, also known as emigration, is the process by which phagocytes squeeze between endothelial cells of blood vessels to enter surrounding tissue during inflammation.
What is the role of phagocytes in the inflammation process?
Phagocytes are attracted to the site of infection through chemotaxis and are responsible for destroying microbes, as well as dead and damaged host cells.
What occurs during the tissue repair stage of inflammation?
During the tissue repair stage, dead and damaged cells are replaced to restore the affected tissue.
What are the four main stages of the inflammation process as illustrated in the diagram?
Tissue Damage: Bacteria enter the skin and cause tissue damage.
Vasodilation and Increased Permeability: Blood vessels dilate, increasing permeability, leading to blood clot formation and abscess development.
Phagocyte Migration and Phagocytosis: Neutrophils and monocytes migrate from blood vessels to engulf bacteria.
Tissue Repair: Formation of a scab and regeneration of the epidermis and dermis.
What role do chemical mediators like histamine and prostaglandins play in the inflammation process?
Chemical mediators such as histamine, kinins, prostaglandins, and leukotrienes are released by damaged cells. They contribute to:
What is the significance of margination and emigration in the inflammatory response?
Margination refers to the process where phagocytes stick to the endothelium of blood vessels, while emigration is the subsequent squeezing of phagocytes between endothelial cells to exit the bloodstream. This is crucial for:
How does tissue repair occur following inflammation?
Tissue repair involves:
What is the first step in the process of phagocytosis?
The first step is chemotaxis and adherence of the microbe to the phagocyte.
What occurs during the ingestion phase of phagocytosis?
During the ingestion phase, the phagocyte extends its plasma membrane to surround and engulf the microbe.
What is formed when the phagocyte engulfs the microbe?
When the phagocyte engulfs the microbe, a phagosome is formed, which is a phagocytic vesicle containing the microbe.
What happens when the phagosome fuses with a lysosome?
When the phagosome fuses with a lysosome, it forms a phagolysosome, where digestive enzymes are present to break down the ingested microbe.
What role do digestive enzymes play in phagocytosis?
Digestive enzymes break down the ingested microbe within the phagolysosome during the digestion phase of phagocytosis.
What is contained within the residual body formed during phagocytosis?
The residual body contains indigestible material that remains after the digestion of the microbe.
What is the final step of phagocytosis?
The final step of phagocytosis is the discharge of waste materials from the phagocyte, which includes the residual body.
What are mast cells and where are they typically found?
Mast cells are a type of immune cell found in tissues such as the skin and near blood vessels.
How are mast cells activated?
Mast cells are activated when an antigen binds to a specific type of antibody called IgE that is attached to receptors on the mast cell.
What substances do activated mast cells release and what is their role?
Activated mast cells release substances like histamine that contribute to inflammation.
What role do mast cells play in allergic responses?
Mast cells are important and involved in allergic responses.
What is the function of the thymus in the adaptive immune system?
The thymus is a glandular organ near the heart where T cells learn their jobs.
What role does the bone marrow play in the immune system?
The bone marrow is a blood-producing tissue located inside certain bones, where blood stem cells give rise to all different types of blood cells.
How does the spleen contribute to the immune response?
The spleen serves as a filter for the blood, removing old and damaged red blood cells, as well as infectious agents, and activating lymphocytes.
What is the purpose of lymph nodes in the immune system?
Lymph nodes are small organs that filter out dead cells, antigens, and other substances to present to lymphocytes.
What is the function of lymphatic vessels in the immune system?
Lymphatic vessels collect fluid (lymph) that has leaked out from the blood into the tissues and return it to circulation.
What is the primary function of T cells or T Lymphocytes?
T cells are responsible for cell-mediated immunity, which involves the direct attack of infected or cancerous cells.
Where do T cells mature in the human body?
T cells mature in the thymus gland.
What is the primary function of B cells or B Lymphocytes?
B cells are responsible for antibody-mediated immunity, which involves the production of antibodies to neutralize pathogens.
Where do B cells mature in the human body?
B cells mature in the bone marrow.
What is the role of pluripotent stem cells in the immune system?
Pluripotent stem cells are the origin of all blood cells, including immune cells. They have the ability to differentiate into various cell types, including lymphocyte stem cells, which further develop into B cells and T cells.
How do lymphocyte stem cells differentiate into B cells and T cells?
Lymphocyte stem cells can differentiate into B cells in the bone marrow or fetal liver, while T cells develop from lymphocyte stem cells that migrate to the thymus for maturation.
What is the function of the thymus in T cell development?
The thymus is responsible for the maturation of T cells from lymphocyte stem cells. It provides an environment for T cells to develop and undergo selection processes to ensure self-tolerance and functionality.
What are the primary locations where B cells and T cells are found in the body?
B cells are primarily found in lymphoid tissues such as lymph nodes, spleen, blood, and lymph, while T cells are also present in these tissues but are specifically matured in the thymus before entering circulation.
What is the primary site of development for T cells during lymphocyte activation?
The primary site of development for T cells is the thymus.
Where do B cells develop immunocompetence?
B cells develop immunocompetence in the bone marrow.
What happens to lymphocytes after they leave the thymus or bone marrow?
After leaving the thymus or bone marrow, lymphocytes 'seed' secondary lymphoid organs, where they encounter antigens and become fully activated.
What is the role of secondary lymphoid organs in lymphocyte activation?
Secondary lymphoid organs are the sites of antigen challenge and the final differentiation of lymphocytes into fully activated B and T cells.
How do mature immunocompetent lymphocytes circulate in the body?
Mature immunocompetent lymphocytes recirculate continuously in the bloodstream and lymph, as well as throughout the lymphoid organs of the body.
What role do T Lymphocytes play in the immune response?
T Lymphocytes are crucial in regulating the production of antibodies by B cells. They include:
What are the surface proteins found on T cells and their significance?
T cells have surface proteins known as cluster determinants (CDs). These include:
What are the key attributes of adaptive immunity?
The key attributes of adaptive immunity are:
What is antigenic specificity in the immune system?
Antigenic specificity refers to the immune system's ability to recognize and selectively eliminate specific foreign microorganisms or antigens, distinguishing subtle differences among them.
How does the immune system demonstrate diversity?
The immune system can recognize billions of unique structures on foreign antigens, showcasing its vast diversity in responding to various pathogens.
What is immunological memory and its significance?
Immunological memory is the immune system's ability to remember an antigen after initial exposure, leading to a heightened state of reactivity upon subsequent exposures to the same antigen.
What does self/non-self recognition mean in the context of the immune system?
Self/non-self recognition is the immune system's capability to distinguish Self Antigens from Non-Self or Foreign Antigens, ensuring that the immune response is directed only against foreign antigens.
What are the two main divisions of the Adaptive Immune System?
The two main divisions of the Adaptive Immune System are Humoral Immunity and Cell Mediated Immunity.
What type of lymphocytes provide Humoral Immunity?
Humoral Immunity is provided by B Lymphocytes.
What type of lymphocytes provide Cell Mediated Immunity?
Cell Mediated Immunity is provided by T Lymphocytes.
What types of antigens can Humoral Immunity recognize?
Humoral Immunity can recognize Protein, Polysaccharide, Phospholipid, and Nucleic Acid Antigens.
What types of antigens can Cell Mediated Immunity recognize?
Cell Mediated Immunity can recognize only Protein Antigens.
How does Humoral Immunity act against antigens?
Humoral Immunity can act against soluble or free antigens.
How does Cell Mediated Immunity recognize antigens?
Cell Mediated Immunity recognizes antigens presented by APCs with Class I or Class II MHC Molecules.
What types of pathogens does Humoral Immunity provide immunity against?
Humoral Immunity provides immunity to extracellular bacteria, viruses, and toxins.
What types of pathogens does Cell Mediated Immunity provide immunity against?
Cell Mediated Immunity provides immunity to intracellular bacteria, viruses, fungi, and protozoa.
What types of hypersensitivity reactions are caused by Humoral Immunity?
Humoral Immunity causes Type I, II, and III Hypersensitivity reactions.
What type of hypersensitivity reaction is caused by Cell Mediated Immunity?
Cell Mediated Immunity causes Type IV Hypersensitivity reactions.
What is the function of Major Histocompatibility Complex (MHC) in the immune system?
The Major Histocompatibility Complex (MHC) displays cell-associated antigens for recognition by T cells, facilitating the immune response.
What are the two types of Major Histocompatibility Complex (MHC)?
The two types of Major Histocompatibility Complex (MHC) are Class I MHC and Class II MHC.
What are the two classes of Major Histocompatibility Complex (MHC) and where are they present?
The two classes of MHC are:
What is the role of Antigen-Presenting Cells (APCs) in the immune response?
Antigen-Presenting Cells (APCs) play a crucial role in the immune response by engulfing pathogens (like bacteria) and presenting their antigens on their surface using MHC molecules, which helps activate T cells.
What does MHC stand for and what is its significance in the immune system?
MHC stands for Major Histocompatibility Complex. It is significant in the immune system as it is responsible for presenting antigen fragments on the surface of APCs, which is essential for T cell recognition and activation.
Which cells are classified as Antigen-Presenting Cells (APCs)?
The cells classified as Antigen-Presenting Cells (APCs) include dendritic cells, macrophages, and B lymphocytes.
What is the first step in the process of humoral immunity?
The Antigen enters the body.
What role do Antigen Presenting Cells (APCs) play in humoral immunity?
APCs, such as Macrophages and Dendritic Cells, get activated and bind with Major Histocompatibility Complex II (MHC II) to form a complex.
How do Immature T Cells become activated in humoral immunity?
Immature T Cells bind to the complex formed by APCs and MHC II with the help of T-Cell Receptors (TCR).
What is the outcome of the activation of CD4+ Cells in humoral immunity?
Activated CD4+ Cells release cytokines IL-2, IL-4, IL-5, and IL-6, which activate B Cells.
What are the two types of cells that B Cells mature into after activation?
B Cells mature into Plasma Cells and Memory Cells.
What is the function of Plasma Cells in humoral immunity?
Plasma Cells produce antibodies.
What is the role of Memory Cells in humoral immunity?
Memory Cells maintain immunological memory and protect the body from future exposure or infections from that particular antigen or microorganism.
What happens to the microbial antigen after it is ingested by the APC?
After ingestion, the microbial antigen is partially digested by the APC, and the resulting fragments bind to MHC II molecules to form an MHC II/Ag complex on the surface of the APC, which is essential for T cell activation.
How does the Helper T cell interact with the antigen presented by the macrophage?
The Helper T cell binds to the MHC II/Ag complex presented by the macrophage, which is specific for the presented antigen. This binding is essential for the activation of the T cell and subsequent immune response.
What is the role of the macrophage in the humoral immunity process?
The macrophage acts as an Antigen-Presenting Cell (APC) that engulfs microorganisms carrying T-dependent antigens, processes them, and presents antigen fragments on its surface along with Self (MHC) molecules.
How does the helper T cell interact with the macrophage during humoral immunity?
The helper T cell's receptor binds to the antigen fragment presented by the macrophage, facilitating the activation of the T cell.
What is the function of IL-2 in the activation of B cells?
IL-2 is a growth factor that is released by the activated helper T cell to stimulate the appropriate B cell, promoting its activation and proliferation.
What are the three main steps illustrated in the humoral immunity process?
The macrophage engulfs a microorganism and presents antigen fragments.
The helper T cell binds to the antigen fragment on the macrophage.
The helper T cell releases IL-2 to activate the B cell.
What is the significance of T-dependent antigens in humoral immunity?
T-dependent antigens require the assistance of helper T cells for B cell activation, leading to the production of antibodies against the specific antigen.
What is the role of T helper cells in humoral immunity?
T helper cells interact with B cells, leading to the differentiation of B cells into Plasma cells and memory cells.
What do Plasma cells produce in the humoral immunity process?
Plasma cells produce secreted antibodies, which are essential for targeting and neutralizing antigens.
What are the two types of cells that B cells differentiate into upon interaction with T helper cells?
B cells differentiate into Plasma cells and memory cells upon interaction with T helper cells.
What are the three differences in the secondary response carried out by memory cells compared to the primary response?
Affinity: Memory cells produce antibodies that bind with greater affinity to their antigens than those produced in the initial response.
Response Time: The response time is much faster than the primary response.
Antibody Production: A greater number of antibodies are produced during the secondary response.
What initiates the humoral immune response during the first exposure to an antigen?
The humoral immune response begins with the antigen being engulfed by an antigen-presenting cell.
What role do Helper T cells play in the humoral immune response?
Helper T cells stimulate B cells and facilitate their differentiation into plasma cells that produce antibodies.
What do plasma cells produce in the humoral immune response?
Plasma cells produce secreted antibodies that defend against extracellular pathogens.
What is the significance of Memory Helper T cells in the humoral immune response?
Memory Helper T cells are crucial for a faster and more effective response during a second exposure to the same antigen, leading to the activation of Memory B cells and subsequent production of antibodies.
How do Memory B cells contribute to the humoral immune response upon re-exposure to an antigen?
Upon re-exposure to the antigen, Memory B cells quickly differentiate into plasma cells, leading to a rapid production of antibodies.
What is induced immunity and how does it function?
Induced immunity is the use of antibodies to resist specific diseases. It can be classified into two main types: active immunity and passive immunity.
What is active immunity and how is it acquired?
Active immunity is when antibodies are produced in the body. It can be acquired naturally, such as through catching a cold, or artificially, through vaccination, like the polio vaccination.
What is the difference between natural and artificial active immunity?
Natural active immunity occurs when pathogens enter the body naturally, stimulating the production of antibodies (e.g., catching a cold). Artificial active immunity occurs when pathogens are introduced into the body via a vaccine, prompting antibody production (e.g., polio vaccination).
What is passive immunity and how is it different from active immunity?
Passive immunity involves the introduction of antibodies obtained from another organism into the body, as opposed to active immunity where the body produces its own antibodies.
What are the two types of passive immunity?
The two types of passive immunity are natural and artificial. Natural passive immunity occurs when antibodies enter the body naturally, such as through the placenta to the fetus. Artificial passive immunity involves the injection of antibodies into the body, such as anti-tetanus injections.
What is the primary function of antibodies in the immune system?
Antibodies are proteins produced by B cells that identify and neutralize foreign objects such as bacteria and viruses.
What is agglutination and how does it benefit the immune response?
Agglutination enhances phagocytosis and reduces the number of infectious units to be dealt with by clustering pathogens together.
How does opsonization enhance phagocytosis?
Opsonization involves coating an antigen with antibody, which enhances the ability of phagocytes to recognize and engulf the pathogen.
What role do antibodies play in neutralization?
Antibodies block the adhesion of bacteria and viruses to mucosa and also block the active site of toxins, preventing their harmful effects.
How do antibodies activate the complement system?
Antibodies can activate the complement system, which leads to the disruption of cells and attracts phagocytic and other defensive immune system cells.
What is the significance of inflammation in the context of antibody action?
Inflammation, triggered by the disruption of cells by complement or C-reactive protein, attracts phagocytic and other immune cells to the site of infection.
What is antibody-dependent cell-mediated cytotoxicity (ADCC)?
ADCC occurs when antibodies attached to target cells cause destruction by non-specific immune cells, enhancing the immune response against infected or abnormal cells.
What is the effect of antibody binding on neutralization of viruses and toxins?
Antibody binding blocks the adhesion of bacteria and viruses to mucosal surfaces and also blocks the active site of toxins, preventing their harmful effects.
Describe the process of complement activation as a consequence of antibody binding.
Complement activation leads to cell lysis of bacteria, and the disruption of cells by complement or reactive proteins attracts phagocytic and other defensive immune system cells to the site of infection.
What is antibody-dependent cell-mediated cytotoxicity?
Antibody-dependent cell-mediated cytotoxicity occurs when antibodies attached to a target cell cause destruction by non-specific immune system cells, enhancing the immune response against infected or abnormal cells.
What is the significance of inflammation in the context of antibody binding?
Inflammation is triggered by the binding of antibodies, which helps to recruit immune cells to the site of infection, facilitating a more effective immune response.
What are the main components of an antibody molecule?
An antibody molecule consists of heavy chains and light chains connected by disulfide bonds. It also has an antigen-binding site at the top of the molecule.
What is the function of the antigen-binding site in an antibody?
The antigen-binding site in an antibody is responsible for recognizing and binding to specific antigens. This interaction is crucial for the immune response.
What is an epitope in the context of antibodies and antigens?
An epitope, also known as an antigenic determinant, is the specific part of an antigen that is recognized and bound by an antibody.
How many epitopes can a given antigen have?
Any given antigen may have several epitopes.
What is the relationship between epitopes and antibodies?
Each epitope is recognized by a different antibody.
What are the five types of heavy chains found in antibodies?
The five types of heavy chains are γ (gamma), δ (delta), α (alpha), μ (mu), and ε (epsilon).
How many types of light chains are there in antibodies, and what are they?
There are two types of light chains in antibodies: K (kappa) and λ (lambda).
What is the domain structure of heavy and light chains in antibodies?
Heavy chains have 4-5 domains, while light chains have 2 domains.
How is an antibody molecule classified based on its chains?
An antibody molecule contains only one type of heavy chain and one type of light chain, which determines its classification into IgG, IgD, IgA, IgM, or IgE.
What are the key characteristics of IgG immunoglobulin?
What role does IgD play in the immune system?
What is the function of IgE in the immune response?
What is the primary function of IgA in the body?
IgA is present in body secretions and provides protection against the proliferation of microorganisms in these fluids. It aids in defense against microbes and foreign molecules penetrating the body via cell linings of cavities.
How does IgA contribute to passive immunity in infants?
IgA provides passive immunity to infants through the mother's breast milk, helping to protect them from infections during early life.
What is the role of IgM in the immune response?
IgM is the first immunoglobulin class produced in a primary response to an antigen (Ag). It serves as the antigen receptor on B cells and is found on their surface alongside IgD. IgM has 10 antigen-binding sites, making it more effective at stimulating complement and facilitating opsonization through binding with Fc receptors on phagocytes.
What structural feature distinguishes IgM from other immunoglobulins?
IgM is characterized by its pentameric structure, consisting of five Y-shaped antibodies connected by a J chain in the center. This unique structure enhances its ability to bind antigens and activate the complement system.