What are the main steps involved in protein synthesis?
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Transcription and translation.
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What are the main steps involved in protein synthesis?
Transcription and translation.
What does the plasma membrane mark?
The boundary between the outside and the inside of the cell.
Why is the integrity of the plasma membrane important?
It is essential for the cell’s survival.
What causes the concentration gradient across plasma membranes?
Inequal distribution of ions.
What is the structure of the Golgi apparatus?
A stack of flattened vesicles known as cisternae.
What is a concentration gradient?
A difference in the concentration of ions across a membrane.
What is primary active transport?
A process that directly uses ATP energy to transport a solute against its concentration gradient.
What is the primary purpose of mitosis?
To produce two identical daughter cells for growth and repair.
What is the genetic relationship of daughter cells produced by meiosis?
They are genetically different.
What is osmosis?
The diffusion of water across a selectively permeable membrane.
Where does the Golgi apparatus transport macromolecules?
To various destinations inside or outside the cell.
What are tight junctions?
Impermeable junctions that prevent substances from penetrating through the cellular layer.
When is a karyotype typically performed?
During metaphase when chromosomes are duplicated, condensed, and most visible.
What does primary active transport establish across a membrane?
An electrochemical gradient.
What are the folds in the inner membrane of mitochondria called?
Cristae.
What surrounds all human cells?
The plasma membrane.
How are amino acids bonded together in proteins?
Via peptide bonds.
What type of organelles are lysosomes?
Single-membrane organelles that bud from the Golgi complex.
What is the structure of DNA?
A double helix composed of two strands of polynucleotides.
What type of energy does secondary active transport rely on?
Energy stored in an electrochemical gradient.
What is the genetic relationship of daughter cells produced by mitosis?
They are genetically identical.
What types of molecules are embedded in the plasma membrane?
Various types of proteins.
What is the role of protein pumps in active transport?
They help move ions or molecules across the plasma membrane against their concentration gradient.
What is chromatin composed of?
Chains of DNA wrapped around proteins called histones.
What energy source does primary active transport use?
ATP energy.
What is the main outcome of meiosis?
To produce four genetically diverse gametes.
What are the two main events of somatic cell division?
Mitosis and Cytokinesis.
What is the primary function of the plasma membrane?
To regulate the movement of substances in and out of the cell.
What phases of the cell cycle must a cell progress through before meiosis begins?
G1, S, and G2 phases.
What is the primary role of the centrosome?
It plays an important role in cell division.
What does DNA stand for?
Deoxyribonucleic acid.
What is the significance of Anaphase I?
Homologous chromosomes are pulled apart to opposite poles of the cell.
What surrounds the nucleus?
The nuclear envelope.
What is the function of the cytoplasm?
Essential for the cell's survival, growth, and overall functioning.
What phase follows Prophase in mitosis?
Prometaphase.
Which cells are involved in reproduction?
Sperm Cells.
What does the genetic code specify?
The sequence of amino acids within a polypeptide.
What are amino acids joined together to form?
A chain of polypeptides.
How many daughter cells are produced by meiosis?
4 haploid daughter cells that are genetically different.
What process involves the joining of amino acids to form polypeptides?
Translation.
What does each tRNA carry?
A specific amino acid at one end.
What are mitochondria commonly referred to as?
The 'powerhouses' of the cell.
What is the first stage of translation?
Initiation.
What are glucose transporters involved in?
Facilitated diffusion of glucose.
What type of membrane surrounds mitochondria?
A double membrane consisting of outer and inner mitochondrial membranes.
What process do lysosomes carry out to digest worn-out or damaged organelles?
Autophagy.
What are histones?
Proteins around which DNA is wrapped to form chromatin.
How many stages are there in mitosis?
Five stages: prophase, metaphase, anaphase, telophase, and cytokinesis.
What is the first phase of mitosis?
Prophase.
What does a diploid cell possess?
Two complete sets of chromosomes, each inherited from one parent.
What causes cell aging over time?
A combination of factors including shortening of telomeres and accumulation of cellular damage.
What are passive processes in the context of the plasma membrane?
Processes that do not require energy to move substances across the membrane.
Which type of cytoskeletal fiber has the largest diameter?
Microtubules.
What is the genetic code?
The sequence of bases in an mRNA molecule.
What occurs during Cytokinesis II?
The division of the cytoplasm following the second meiotic division, resulting in four haploid daughter cells.
What is the mechanism by which SARS-CoV-2 enters cells?
Receptor-mediated endocytosis.
What is a promoter in DNA transcription?
A segment of DNA where transcription begins, serving as binding sites for RNA polymerase and other regulatory proteins.
What do lysosomes store?
Hydrolases, which are enzymes that digest various biological molecules.
What are the main stages of Meiosis I?
Prophase I, Metaphase I, Anaphase I, and Telophase I.
What type of barrier is the plasma membrane?
A selectively permeable barrier.
What type of cells are responsible for transporting oxygen in the body?
Blood Cells.
What is the result of the fertilization event in sexual reproduction?
A diploid cell called a zygote.
What is the primary function of nucleic acids?
Responsible for the storage, expression, and transmission of genetic information.
What is an example of active transport?
The sodium-potassium pump, which moves sodium out of and potassium into the cell.
What is gene expression?
The process by which information from a gene is used to synthesize a functional gene product, typically a protein.
What is the primary function of the cytoskeleton?
To maintain cell shape and anchor/move organelles.
How is the Golgi apparatus related to the ER?
It is closely related in proximity and function.
What marks the end of the translation process?
Termination, when a stop codon is reached.
What occurs during mitosis?
Division of the nucleus.
How does meiosis affect the number of chromosomes?
It reduces the number of chromosomes by half.
What is an example of a primary active transport mechanism?
Proton (H+) Pump.
What is one of the primary functions of mitochondria?
Generate ATP through reactions of aerobic cellular respiration.
What is Cytokinesis I?
The process that divides the cytoplasm of a cell into two daughter cells after the first meiotic division.
What transports products from the ER to the Golgi apparatus?
Vesicles.
What determines the function of a cell?
Its shape and specific organelles and subcellular structures.
What do amino acids form when covalently bonded?
A linear chain of polypeptides.
What type of energy is typically used in active transport?
ATP (adenosine triphosphate).
What are the nitrogenous bases in DNA?
Pyrimidines: Thymine (T) & Cytosine (C); Purines: Adenine (A) & Guanine (G).
Can more than one codon specify the same amino acid?
Yes, more than one codon can specify the same amino acid.
What is the basic unit of life according to Cell Theory?
A cell.
What are the main components of the plasma membrane?
Phospholipids, proteins, cholesterol, and carbohydrates.
What is endocytosis?
A process by which cells transport substances into the cell by engulfing them in vesicles.
What is facilitated diffusion?
The process of transporting molecules across a membrane via protein carriers or channels without energy input.
Which cells are specialized for transmitting signals in the body?
Nerve Cells.
What type of membrane does osmosis occur across?
A selectively permeable plasma membrane.
What role do vesicles play in endocytosis?
Vesicles transport substances into the cell during the endocytosis process.
How does active transport differ from passive transport?
Active transport requires energy, while passive transport does not.
Where are tight junctions predominantly found?
In kidney cells, stomach, and intestinal cells.
What type of cells form the protective outer layer of the skin?
Epithelial Cells (Skin).
What is the process of converting DNA into protein called?
Gene expression.
What is the role of Deoxyribonucleic Acid (DNA)?
Stores genetic information.
What are the characteristics of the polar 'heads' of phospholipid molecules?
They are hydrophilic (water-loving) and align on both sides of the membrane.
How is mRNA synthesized?
mRNA is synthesized through a process called transcription, where a segment of DNA is copied into RNA.
In what state does chromatin exist in non-dividing cells?
A decondensed state throughout the nucleus.
What distinguishes Rough ER (RER) from Smooth ER (SER)?
Rough ER is studded with ribosomes and is involved in protein synthesis, while Smooth ER has no role in protein synthesis.
What does 'P site' refer to?
It refers to the peptidyl site in ribosomes where the growing polypeptide chain is held.
What encodes genetic information?
The sequence of DNA.
What happens to mRNA after it is synthesized?
After synthesis, mRNA undergoes processing, including splicing, capping, and polyadenylation, before it is translated into protein.
What happens to chromatin during cell division?
It condenses to form chromosomes.
What are proteins composed of?
Large, complex polymers made of amino acid molecules.
What does secondary active transport use to drive the active transport?
A pre-existing gradient.
What type of daughter cells does mitosis produce?
2 diploid daughter cells that are genetically identical.
How is secondary active transport often coupled?
To primary active transport.
What is active transport?
The movement of molecules across a plasma membrane against their concentration gradient, requiring energy.
What is a codon?
A sequence of 3 bases in an mRNA molecule that codes for a specific amino acid.
What is the primary purpose of Meiosis I?
To reduce the chromosome number by half and produce haploid cells.
What is the structure of the plasma membrane?
It is a phospholipid bilayer made of two layers.
What is the relationship between a cell's structure and its function?
They are related to one another, known as the Structure-Function Relationship.
What proteins on the coronavirus facilitate entry into host cells?
Spike proteins.
What is a terminator in DNA transcription?
A segment of DNA where transcription ends.
What is the primary function of the Golgi apparatus?
To sort and package modified proteins, lipids, and other macromolecules.
What is simple diffusion?
The movement of molecules from an area of higher concentration to an area of lower concentration without energy input.
What does secondary active transport move against?
Its concentration gradient.
Which cell receptor does SARS-CoV-2 primarily bind to?
ACE2 cell receptors.
What is a karyotype?
A photographic representation of an individual’s complete set of chromosomes.
What occurs during Prophase I?
Homologous chromosomes pair up and exchange genetic material through crossing over.
What are the base pairing rules in DNA?
A pairs with T and C pairs with G, both via hydrogen bonds.
What are passive processes in the context of the plasma membrane?
Processes that do not require energy to move substances across the membrane.
What role does cholesterol play in the plasma membrane?
It provides structural support.
What occurs during the elongation stage of translation?
Amino acids are added one by one to the growing polypeptide chain.
What is mRNA?
mRNA, or messenger RNA, is a type of RNA that conveys genetic information from DNA to the ribosome, where proteins are synthesized.
Why might individuals with pre-existing cardiovascular conditions be more susceptible to severe outcomes from SARS-CoV-2 infection?
Due to higher ACE2 expression in the heart and lungs.
How many bases make up a codon?
Three bases.
What type of cells are produced through meiosis?
Haploid cells (gametes, e.g., spermatozoa and ova).
What components make up a DNA nucleotide?
Nitrogenous base, deoxyribose sugar, and phosphate group.
What are the two classes of nucleic acids?
Deoxyribonucleic Acid (DNA) and Ribonucleic Acid (RNA).
What is diffusion?
The movement of molecules from an area of higher concentration to an area of lower concentration.
What does 'E site' refer to?
It typically refers to the exit site in ribosomes during protein synthesis.
What is osmosis?
The diffusion of water across a selectively permeable membrane through water channels.
What is apoptosis in relation to lysosomes?
The digestion of an entire cell.
How is glucose transported into cells?
By facilitated transport down its concentration gradient with the help of a protein carrier called transporter.
How is the genetic code read?
In groups of 3 bases, known as codons.
Is cellular energy required for glucose transport into cells?
No, cellular energy is not required.
What do most codons specify?
A particular amino acid, including Start and Stop codons.
What may occur when glucose transporters are altered within the cells?
Some forms of Diabetes may occur.
What are the two essential processes in the life cycle of organisms related to aging and cell death?
Cellular senescence and apoptosis.
What is one function of lysosomes related to endocytosis?
They fuse with and digest substances that enter a cell via endocytosis, such as phagocytosis.
What is located at the other end of a tRNA molecule?
An anticodon, which is complementary to the codon in the mRNA.
What is the most important structure in the cell?
The nucleus.
What two factors determine the ability of molecules to pass through the plasma membrane?
Electric features and size of molecules.
What are all living things made up of?
Cells.
What happens during Metaphase I?
Homologous chromosome pairs align at the cell's equatorial plane.
What does the nucleus contain?
DNA.
What do carbohydrates attach to in the plasma membrane?
Proteins and lipids on the exterior leaflet.
What is the primary role of mRNA in gene expression?
The primary role of mRNA is to serve as a template for protein synthesis during translation.
What is the relationship between a codon and an anticodon?
The anticodon is complementary to the codon in the mRNA.
What are the three types of fibers that make up the cytoskeleton?
Microtubules, intermediate filaments, and microfilaments.
What is the cell cycle?
A series of events that occurs in a cell as it grows and divides.
What is mitosis?
A process of cell division that results in two genetically identical daughter cells.
What occurs during transcription?
The DNA sequence of a gene is copied into messenger RNA (mRNA).
What are the two rounds of divisions in meiosis called?
Meiosis I and Meiosis II.
What are the two main types of endocytosis?
Phagocytosis and pinocytosis.
What are the two main components of a centrosome?
Two centrioles oriented at right angles to each other.
What is the role of mRNA in protein synthesis?
mRNA carries the genetic information from the DNA to the ribosome, where proteins are synthesized.
What occurs to cells in a hypotonic solution during osmosis?
They gain water and may swell or burst.
What is facilitated diffusion?
A process where molecules pass through the plasma membrane via special protein channels.
What is the phase of mitosis where sister chromatids are pulled apart?
Anaphase.
What is apoptosis?
A programmed cell death mechanism that eliminates damaged or malfunctioning cells.
What are the main stages of mitosis?
Prophase, Metaphase, Anaphase, and Telophase.
How does concentration gradient affect passive transport?
Substances move down their concentration gradient, from high to low concentration.
Which nitrogenous base is found in DNA but not in RNA?
Thymine (T).
What happens during prophase?
Chromatin condenses into chromosomes, and the nuclear envelope begins to break down.
Which enzyme synthesizes the complementary RNA sequence?
RNA polymerase.
What types of molecules can generally pass through the plasma membrane?
Hydrophobic molecules, gases, and small uncharged molecules.
How do new cells arise according to Cell Theory?
From pre-existing cells.
What role do cell organelles play?
They perform specific functions necessary for cell survival and operation.
What is the Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER)?
A continuous network of membranes that interacts with other membranes in the cell.
What does 'A site' refer to?
It refers to the aminoacyl site in ribosomes where tRNA brings amino acids during translation.
What is the function of desmosomes?
They prevent cells subjected to mechanical stress from being pulled apart.
What is the chromosome number represented by 2N?
46 chromosomes.
What are the two main stages of gene expression?
Transcription and translation.
What are the characteristics of the nonpolar 'tails' of phospholipid molecules?
They are hydrophobic (water-fearing) and align in the interior of the membrane.
What is transported into the cell despite the plasma membrane's selectivity?
Essential cell proteins and large molecules.
How many phases are there in Meiosis I?
5 phases: Prophase I, Prometaphase I, Metaphase I, Anaphase I, and Telophase I.
What are the main functions of Rough ER (RER)?
Protein synthesis and modification.
What is osmosis?
The diffusion of water across a selectively permeable membrane.
What do gap junctions facilitate?
Direct communication between cells and passage of ions and small molecules.
How many phases are there in Meiosis II?
5 phases: Prophase II, Prometaphase II, Metaphase II, Anaphase II, and Telophase II.
What is pinocytosis?
A type of endocytosis where the cell engulfs liquid and small particles.
What does the Golgi apparatus do?
Modifies, sorts, and packages proteins and lipids for secretion.
Where are gap junctions predominantly found?
In neurons and muscle cells, including cardiac cells.
What are the pyrimidine nitrogenous bases in RNA?
Uracil (U) and Cytosine (C).
What is the result of meiosis in terms of chromosome number?
The chromosome number is halved in the daughter cells.
Which nitrogenous base is found in RNA but not in DNA?
Uracil (U).
What occurs during metaphase?
Chromosomes align at the cell's equatorial plane.
What replaces thymine (T) in the resulting mRNA?
Uracil (U).
What role do cilia play in the trachea?
They sweep mucus and dirt out of the lungs.
What role does Ribosomal RNA (rRNA) play?
It is crucial for protein synthesis and is a fundamental component of ribosomes.
What are the stages of mitosis?
Prophase, Prometaphase, Metaphase, Anaphase, and Telophase.
What structures are formed by DNA wrapped around histones?
Nucleosomes.
What are cilia and flagella?
Cytoplasmic outgrowths extending from the plasma membrane.
What is the significance of crossing over in meiosis?
It increases genetic variation among offspring.
What is active transport?
The movement of molecules across a membrane against their concentration gradient, requiring energy.
What does RNA stand for?
Ribonucleic acid.
What happens to cells in a hypertonic solution during osmosis?
They lose water and may shrink.
What is diffusion?
The movement of molecules from an area of higher concentration to an area of lower concentration.
What are the main stages of mitosis?
Prophase, Metaphase, Anaphase, and Telophase.
What sugar is found in DNA?
Deoxyribose.
What occurs during transcription?
The DNA sequence is copied into mRNA.
What is phagocytosis?
A type of endocytosis where the cell engulfs large particles or cells.
What is transcribed from DNA during transcription?
mRNA.
What is the significance of the codons in mRNA?
Codons are sequences of three nucleotides in mRNA that specify which amino acids will be added during protein synthesis.
What are the components of an RNA nucleotide?
Nitrogenous base, ribose sugar, and phosphate group.
What is the result of mitosis in terms of chromosome number?
The chromosome number remains the same as the parent cell.
How many pairs of chromosomes do somatic cells contain?
23 pairs (46 chromosomes).
Why is the balance between cell aging and apoptosis important?
It is pivotal in maintaining the health of an organism.
What are lysosomes and proteasomes responsible for?
Breaking down waste materials and cellular debris.
What is the significance of the genetic code?
It determines the sequence of amino acids in a protein, which ultimately affects the protein's structure and function.
How does concentration gradient affect passive transport?
Substances move down their concentration gradient during passive transport.
What are codons?
Sequences of 3 nucleotides in the mRNA.
What role do cilia play in the fallopian tubes?
They move eggs to the uterus.
What is the structure of RNA?
Single strand.
What are cell junctions?
Structures that connect cells to each other, facilitating communication and adhesion.
What is mucus and where is it found?
A substance found within the respiratory epithelium.
What drives the process of osmosis?
The concentration gradient of water.
What types of substances can be transported via endocytosis?
Large molecules, particles, or even other cells.
What is formed during prophase of meiosis?
Bivalent/Tetrad.
What types of molecules are impermeable to the plasma membrane?
Charged molecules and ions.
What occurs during Telophase I?
The cell divides into two haploid cells, each with half the original chromosome number.
What is the gel-like substance inside the nucleus called?
Nucleoplasm.
What is the function of Ribonucleic Acid (RNA)?
Transfers genetic information from DNA to form a protein.
In which cells are desmosomes predominantly found?
In epidermis and cardiac cells.
What is RNA composed of?
One strand of polynucleotides.
What are nuclear pores?
Openings in the nuclear envelope that regulate transportation of molecules.
What happens during prophase?
Chromatin condenses into visible chromosomes, and the nuclear envelope begins to break down.
What sugar is found in RNA?
Ribose.
What is the diameter of microfilaments compared to other cytoskeletal fibers?
They have a thin diameter.
Which types of cells may enter G0 phase?
Liver cells, pancreatic cells, neurons, and muscle cells.
How does crossing over affect genetic variation?
It may increase the genetic variation of a species.
What are the types of endocytosis?
Primary, secondary (coupled), phagocytosis, and receptor-mediated endocytosis.
What is the primary function of flagella?
To move an entire cell.
What is a chiasma in the context of meiosis?
A site where arms of chromosomes separate but remain adhered at a crossover site.
Name three types of organelles found in the cytoplasm.
Nucleus, mitochondria, Golgi apparatus.
How are chromosomes inherited from parents?
One member of each pair is inherited from each parent.
What types of lipids does Smooth ER (SER) synthesize?
Lipids and steroids such as cholesterol and its derivatives (e.g., estrogens, testosterone).
How does Smooth ER (SER) contribute to carbohydrate metabolism?
It is involved in the metabolism of carbohydrates, such as glucose.
What do codons signal during protein synthesis?
The incorporation of specific amino acids or termination of protein synthesis.
What are lipid droplets?
Inclusion bodies commonly found in fat cells.
How many types of DNA are there?
1 type.
How many types of RNA are there?
3 types.
What is facilitated diffusion?
The process of transporting substances across a membrane with the help of carrier proteins.
What occurs during cytokinesis?
Division of the cytoplasm.
What is the function of mitochondria?
To produce energy in the form of ATP through cellular respiration.
How do cilia differ from flagella in terms of size and quantity?
Cilia are short and numerous, while flagella are long and single.
What type of cells undergo mitosis?
Somatic (body) cells.
What role do channel proteins play in passive transport?
They provide pathways for specific ions and molecules to cross the plasma membrane.
What is exocytosis?
The process by which cells expel materials in vesicles that fuse with the plasma membrane.
What are cell junctions?
Structures that connect cells to each other and to the extracellular matrix.
How much shorter are cilia compared to flagella?
Cilia are about 20 times shorter than flagella.
What is the role of the endoplasmic reticulum?
Involved in protein and lipid synthesis.
What substances are allowed to exit the cell?
Proteins and waste products.
What is the karyotype notation for a male?
22 + XY.
What are the functions of Smooth ER (SER)?
Synthesis of lipids and steroids, detoxification of harmful substances, storage and release of Ca2+ ions, and carbohydrate metabolism.
What serves as a template for RNA synthesis during transcription?
The DNA template strand.
What is cytoplasm?
The fluid filling the inside of a cell that contains organelles, solutes, and nutrients.
What is osmosis?
The diffusion of water across a selectively permeable membrane.
What occurs to the centrosomes as cell division begins?
They move to opposite ends of the cell.
What role does Smooth ER (SER) play in muscle contraction?
It stores and releases Ca2+ ions that trigger muscle contraction.
What happens during telophase?
Chromosomes de-condense, and the nuclear envelope re-forms around each set of chromosomes.
What is the function of Messenger RNA (mRNA)?
Directs the synthesis of a protein.
What is cytokinesis?
The process that follows mitosis, dividing the cytoplasm and organelles into two daughter cells.
How is the sequence of amino acids determined?
By the sequence of nucleotides in the mRNA.
What are centrosomes involved in?
Organizing microtubules and cell division.
How does mitosis contribute to growth?
By producing new cells for tissue growth and repair.
What are proteasomes?
Barrel-shaped cellular protein complexes that contain proteases.
What is the function of proteases within proteasomes?
To degrade unneeded, damaged, or faulty cytoplasmic proteins into small peptides and amino acids.
Where do the degraded products from proteasomes go?
They are recycled back to the cytosol.
Where is the centrosome typically located within the cell?
In the cytoplasm close to the nucleus.
What are telomeres?
Protective caps on the ends of chromosomes.
What are the two major phases of the cell cycle?
Interphase and Mitosis.
What organelle contains the cell's genetic material?
Nucleus.
Which phase of mitosis involves the alignment of chromosomes at the cell's equator?
Metaphase.
What is glycation?
A chemical process in which sugar molecules attach to proteins, lipids, or nucleic acids unnaturally.
What are microfilaments also known as?
Actin filaments.
What type of cells undergo meiosis?
Germ cells (sperm and egg).
What is endocytosis?
The process by which cells take in materials by engulfing them in vesicles.
What is the function of tight junctions?
To prevent the leakage of materials between cells.
What is the primary function of cilia?
To move fluids along a cell's surface.
What occurs during metaphase?
Chromosomes align at the cell's equatorial plane.
What is the function of ribosomes in protein synthesis?
Ribosomes facilitate the translation of mRNA into proteins by linking amino acids together.
What types of substances does Smooth ER help detoxify?
Harmful substances.
What is the significance of anaphase?
Sister chromatids are pulled apart to opposite poles of the cell.
What is the function of the endoplasmic reticulum?
To synthesize proteins and lipids.
What are nucleoli and what is their function?
Dense spherical structures in the nucleus that are sites of rRNA synthesis and assembly of ribosomal subunits.
How many microtubules are there in one centriole?
27 microtubules (9 triplets).
What happens to each pair of chromosomes before cell division?
Each pair duplicates into two sister chromatids held together by a centromere.
What is the function of Transfer RNA (tRNA)?
Carries specific amino acids to the ribosome during protein synthesis based on the genetic code in mRNA.
What is cytokinesis?
The division of the cytoplasm, resulting in two separate cells.
Where are glycogen granules abundant?
In liver and muscle cells.
What important role do mitochondria play besides energy production?
They play an important role in apoptosis.
What is the process called when homologous pairs of sister chromatids associate with each other?
Synapsis.
What type of genetic information do daughter cells inherit from the mother cell?
The same genetic information.
What is the karyotype notation for a female?
22 + XX.
What is mitosis?
A process of cell division that results in two genetically identical daughter cells.
What is crossing over in meiosis?
Physical exchange between chromosome pieces of the crossing bivalent.
What is the ploidy level of somatic cells?
Diploid (2N).
What is the significance of osmosis in cells?
It helps maintain cell turgor and homeostasis.
When are chromosomes most easily visualized?
During mitosis.
What is the final phase of mitosis?
Telophase.
What is the role of gap junctions?
To allow communication and transfer of ions and small molecules between adjacent cells.
What form do chromosomes take during interphase?
Chromatin.
How do cells interact and communicate with each other?
By forming junctions that provide mechanical links and enable surface receptors to recognize ligands on other cells.
What are the purine nitrogenous bases in RNA?
Adenine (A) and Guanine (G).
What is the primary function of mitochondria?
To produce energy (ATP) through cellular respiration.
What types of solutes and nutrients are found in the cytoplasm?
Ions, vitamins, nucleotides, amino acids, proteins, enzymes, minerals.
What is the purpose of the G2 phase?
It is the second gap phase where the cell prepares for mitosis.
What is the primary function of a blackboard in a classroom?
To display information and facilitate teaching.
What happens during telophase?
Nuclear envelopes reform around the two sets of chromosomes, which begin to de-condense.
What are the base pairing rules for RNA?
A pairs with U and C pairs with G via hydrogen bonds.
What pigment is commonly found in skin and hair cells?
Melanin.
How do proteasomes contribute to cellular health?
By degrading and recycling proteins, thus regulating various cellular processes.
What is G0 phase in the cell cycle?
An alternative pathway for cells that postpone division or never divide again.
What is the structure of centrioles?
Made up of 9 circular triplets of microtubules.
What happens during translation?
The mRNA sequence is decoded by ribosomes to assemble amino acids into a polypeptide chain, forming a protein.
What is the role of mRNA in protein synthesis?
It carries the genetic information from the DNA to the ribosome.
What role do protein channels play in passive transport?
They help specific molecules cross the plasma membrane without using energy.
What happens to the centrosome before cell division?
It duplicates.
What happens during translation?
The mRNA sequence is used to assemble amino acids into a protein.
What occurs during the G1 phase of the cell cycle?
It is the first gap phase where the cell grows.
What are the components of the 23 pairs of chromosomes in somatic cells?
22 pairs of autosomes and 1 pair of sex chromosomes (XX or XY).
Where are cilia found in the human body?
In the trachea and fallopian tubes (oviduct).
What are the building blocks of proteins?
Amino acids.
What is the cytoskeleton's role in the cell?
Provides structural support and aids in cell movement.
What are inclusion bodies?
Structures within the cytoplasm that store various substances.
How can students interact with a blackboard?
By writing, drawing, or solving problems on it.
What is the role of the coding strand in transcription?
It serves as a template for the synthesis of mRNA.
What are the advantages of using a blackboard in teaching?
Encourages participation and visual learning.
What happens to proteins destined for degradation in proteasomes?
They are injected into the core proteasome and degraded into small peptides and amino acids.
What is the function of ribosomes in protein synthesis?
They facilitate the translation of mRNA into a protein.
What happens during the S phase of the cell cycle?
Synthesis of DNA occurs.
What are the nitrogenous bases used in both DNA and RNA?
Adenine (A), guanine (G), cytosine (C).
What is the key event in anaphase?
Sister chromatids are pulled apart to opposite poles of the cell.
What is the structure of DNA?
Double strand.
What is the function of cilia and flagella?
Facilitate movement of the cell or movement of substances across the cell surface.
What materials are commonly used to write on a blackboard?
Chalk or markers (for whiteboards).
What is the complementary pairing rule during transcription?
U replaces T.