pathophysiology text 2

Prognosis varies and depends on the stage of the cancer, the subtype, patient age, and overall health of the patient.

A positive ELISA test is repeated and confirmed using the Western blot test.

Phagocytosis.

Nonspecific immunity and specific immunity.

Cutaneous lupus affects only the skin and accounts for approximately 10% of all lupus cases.

Patients should avoid tobacco, cold exposure, and stress, exercise regularly, eat small frequent meals, protect their skin, and moisturize frequently.

Medical history, physical exam, complete blood count, urinalysis, autoantibody testing, measurement of general levels of inflammation, biopsy.

An HIV-infected patient experiences symptoms such as diarrhea, fever, fatigue, oral infections, and enlarged lymph nodes.

Idiopathic.

Histamines and kinins are released, causing blood vessels to dilate and become more permeable.

ELISA is used for the detection of infectious diseases by labeling either the antibody or antigen with an enzyme.

The first stage is the acute HIV infection stage, where antibodies against HIV are produced within 3 months of being infected.

AIDS indicator diseases are infections that do not normally occur in a person with a healthy immune system, such as pneumonia caused by Pneumocystis jirovecii.

Allergens that can trigger allergic responses include ragweed or grass pollen, mold, bee venom, poison ivy, latex, and other environmental substances.

Dry eyes and mouth.

Immunologic memory.

Medications include hydralazine, procainamide, and quinidine.

Cytotoxic T cells are activated by antigens displayed on infected cells, abnormal cells, and transplanted organs and tissues, leading to their division and production of clones and memory T cells.

The four types of lupus are systemic, cutaneous, drug-induced, and neonatal.

Weakened immune system and certain infections such as human T-cell lymphotropic virus, Epstein-Barr virus, Helicobacter pylori, hepatitis C, and HIV.

Sjögren’s syndrome is often underdiagnosed or misdiagnosed because its signs and symptoms can mimic those of menopause, drug side effects, or other diseases like lupus and rheumatoid arthritis.

65–90% for all stages of the disease combined.

Exposure to viral infections and certain chemicals may trigger scleroderma in those who are genetically predisposed.

Approximately 300,000 people.

The first exposure to an antigen triggers humoral immunity.

Signs and symptoms of anaphylaxis include a sudden drop in blood pressure, narrowing of the airways, rapid and weak pulse, hives, and nausea and vomiting.

Chemotherapy, radiation, bone marrow or stem cell transplant.

Intact skin and mucous membranes.

The immune system coexists with the body's own cells that display distinctive 'self' molecules.

Specific immunity must be primed by an initial exposure to an antigen before it can protect the body.

Adaptive immunity.

Humoral immunity and cell-mediated immunity.

The human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) is responsible for AIDS.

20% of lupus patients have a parent or sibling with lupus.

Lupus signs and symptoms can mimic those of other illnesses, are sometimes vague, and may come and go.

NSAIDs, corticosteroids, antimalarial drugs, immunosuppressive drugs, monoclonal antibody therapy.

The hallmark symptoms of Sjögren’s syndrome are dry eyes and mouth, and it may also cause complications in various organs such as the kidneys and lungs.

The treatment of choice for anaphylaxis is epinephrine by injection, which quickly reverses symptoms by constricting blood vessels, relaxing lung muscles, and reducing swelling.

Secondary Raynaud's phenomenon, thickening and tightening of the skin, pain in two or more joints, heartburn, difficulty swallowing, shortness of breath.

The most common rash is raised, scaly, and red, known as a discoid rash because the areas are circular.

AIDS is a disease of the immune system characterized by a reduction in the number of helper T cells (CD4 cells) and increased susceptibility to opportunistic infections and certain cancers.

Treatment options may include radiation therapy, chemotherapy, anti-inflammatory medication, stem cell transplant, and monoclonal antibody therapy.

A helper T cell count of less than 200 indicates progression from HIV to AIDS.

Behaviors include sharing needles, having unprotected sex with multiple or anonymous partners, and exchanging sex for drugs or money.

No, Hodgkin’s lymphoma cannot be prevented.

Diagnosis begins with a thorough medical history and physical exam, and may include antibody testing and biopsy, as no single test can confirm the diagnosis.

Memory T cells can rapidly mobilize should the same antigen be encountered again.

Viruses, abnormal cells, and other intracellular pathogens.

The 10-year survival rate for lcSSc is 71%, while for dcSSc it is 21%.

Virus-infected cells and cancer cells.

The etiology is idiopathic, but environmental and genetic factors may play a role.

Immune complexes are deposited in tissue and vessels.

Screening and early diagnosis are important because non-Hodgkin’s lymphoma cannot be prevented.

Innate immunity.

Painless swelling of lymph nodes, fatigue, pain, unexplained fever, soaking night sweats, itchy skin, coughing, trouble breathing, chest pain, abdominal fullness, and unexplained weight loss.

Reed-Sternberg cells.

Scleroderma is an autoimmune disease that causes the immune system to stimulate fibroblasts to produce excessive collagen, leading to thickening and tightening of the skin and potentially affecting internal organs.

AIDS is characterized by a helper T cell count of less than 200.

Medications include anti-inflammatory drugs, immunosuppressive drugs, and vasodilators to treat Raynaud’s phenomenon.

Anaphylaxis is a systemic, acute allergic response that may be life-threatening, triggered by allergens such as peanuts, latex, certain medications like penicillin, and venom from stinging insects like wasps and bees.

Type II hypersensitivity is called cytotoxic because IgM or IgG causes the destruction of cells. An example is the response to an incompatible blood transfusion.

The primary HIV infection stage follows exposure to HIV, lasts a few weeks, and is accompanied by a short flulike illness.

Immune complexes can deposit in tissues such as the kidneys, leading to inflammatory diseases like glomerulonephritis.

The response time for Type IV hypersensitivity is 48–72 hours.

The drug, a combination of two medicines, prevents HIV from altering the genetic material of healthy CD4 cells, reducing the risk of HIV infection.

Abstinence, monogamy, condom use, male circumcision, sterile needles and syringes for each injection for IV drug use, testing and counseling for HIV.

Adults age 60 and older.

Genetic factors, hormones, and environmental triggers such as viral infections contribute to the etiology of Sjögren’s syndrome, with a first-degree relative with autoimmunity increasing the risk significantly.

The key is being diagnosed early.

Redness, heat, swelling, and pain.

DILE can be brought on by more than 70 different prescription drugs and accounts for about 10% of all lupus cases.

Painless swelling of lymph nodes, fatigue, unexplained fever, soaking night sweats, itchy skin, coughing, trouble breathing, chest pain, unexplained weight loss, pain, swelling or a feeling of fullness in the abdomen, unexplained weight loss.

The two forms are localized scleroderma (LSc), which affects only the skin, and systemic sclerosis scleroderma (SSc), which involves internal organs and skin.

Over 95%.

In the 40s.

IgM is the first antibody produced in the primary response to the antigen.

Common types of skin tests include the skin prick test, intradermal test, and skin patch test.

Immediate, short-term protection against any antigen.

Based on a physical exam, complete blood count, lactate dehydrogenase test, and biopsy.

Fatigue, arthritis, fever, butterfly rash across cheeks and nose, photosensitivity, secondary Raynaud's phenomenon, mouth or nose ulcers.

Agglutination reactions detect bacterial and viral diseases, such as strep throat and influenza.

The Western blot test detects the presence of antibodies in patient serum.

B lymphocytes (or B cells).

Autoimmunity occurs when individuals develop autoantibodies to their own tissues or self antigens.

There are four distinct stages in HIV infection.

Common signs include fatigue, arthritis, fever, butterfly rash, photosensitivity, and mouth or nose ulcers.

Exposure to sunlight.

Hodgkin’s lymphoma is most frequently diagnosed in teens and adults between the ages of 15 and 40 and after age 55.

HIV+, AIDS indicator disease, helper T cell count less than 200.

They contain chemicals that destroy foreign invaders.

Any foreign substance recognized as 'nonself' that activates the immune system.

They detect the presence of antibodies to a specific pathogen or the presence of antigen from a specific pathogen.

Nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs), corticosteroids, antimalarial medications, immunosuppressive drugs, and monoclonal antibodies.

Localized scleroderma and systemic scleroderma.

The thymus atrophies, causing a decrease in the number and type of T cells produced, resulting in fewer T cells capable of responding to new antigens.

It assists in the destruction of foreign cells and enhances the inflammatory response.

B cells provide humoral immunity and secrete antibodies.

Excess IgE bound to mast cells causes the release of histamine.

Allergies can be diagnosed through various tests, including skin tests where a small amount of the suspected allergen is placed on or below the skin.

The daily drug will cost $13,900 a year for each patient.

Type I hypersensitivity, also known as immediate hypersensitivity, is the most common type of allergy triggered by IgE immunoglobulin in response to allergens. It leads to the release of histamine from mast cells, causing symptoms like swelling and congestion.

HIV is transmitted via contaminated body fluids, including blood, semen, vaginal secretions, and breast milk.

Raised, scaly and red rash that is not itchy, including a butterfly rash across cheeks and nose.

Primary HIV stage (flulike illness), clinically asymptomatic stage (none), symptomatic stage (diarrhea, fever or night sweats, fatigue or joint pain, oral infection, enlarged lymph nodes, skin problems).

Painless swelling of lymph nodes, fatigue, unexplained fever, soaking night sweats, itchy skin, coughing, trouble breathing, chest pain, unexplained weight loss.

Sjögren’s syndrome is a chronic autoimmune disease that affects the moisture-producing glands of the body, with 90% of patients being women.

In the thymus.

Common initial signs include secondary Raynaud’s phenomenon, thickening and tightening of the skin of the fingers, and joint pain.

Antiviral proteins produced by some animal cells after viral infection.

Infection, trauma, intense heat, and chemicals.

Antiretroviral therapy (ART) is the recommended treatment for HIV infection, which controls the replication of the virus and slows the progression of HIV-related disease.

Flow cytometry identifies and counts cells with a particular antigen, and FACS is used to count helper T cells.

Infections, sulfa antibiotics, penicillin, ultraviolet light, stress, certain drugs, and hormones.

The amount of antibody produced in response to an antigen is reduced, making vaccines less effective in older adults.

In Type II hypersensitivity, antibodies interact with antigens on transfused red blood cells, causing agglutination and lysis of the cells.

The fingers can turn white and/or blue when cold, known as secondary Raynaud's phenomenon.

Examples include skin reactions to poison ivy, contact dermatitis from latex gloves, and the tuberculosis skin test.

Suggested methods include abstinence, monogamy, condom use, testing and counseling for HIV, male circumcision, sterile needles for IV drug use, and ART therapy.

Immune system function declines, leading to a greater risk for infection and decreased ability to fight infectious diseases.

Risk factors include having unprotected sex, multiple sex partners, another sexually transmitted infection, IV drug use, being uncircumcised, and being born to an infected mother.

The secondary response to an antigen produces antibodies faster and in larger quantities, and lasts longer than the initial response.

Type III hypersensitivity, known as immune-complex hypersensitivity, involves antigens combining with antibodies to form immune complexes that deposit in tissues and trigger inflammation.

IgE stimulates the release of histamine and other chemicals that mediate inflammation and allergic responses.

Common signs and symptoms include painless swelling of lymph nodes, fatigue, unexplained fever, soaking night sweats, itchy skin, coughing, and trouble breathing.

Neonatal lupus is a rare condition acquired from maternal autoantibodies that affect the skin, heart, and blood of the fetus and newborn.

Plasma cells secrete antibodies that bind to antigens, making them easier targets for phagocytes and complement.

Ninety percent of lupus patients are women.

T cells provide cell-mediated immunity and target intracellular pathogens and cancer cells.

IgA protects mucosal surfaces by interfering with the ability of pathogens to adhere to cells.

No, ART does not cure HIV infection; individuals can still transmit HIV to others while on these medications.

Vaccinations for influenza, pneumonia, hepatitis B, tuberculosis, diphtheria, and tetanus are recommended to reduce mortality.

During the clinically asymptomatic stage, which lasts an average of 10 years, patients do not have symptoms but can transmit the infection.

An example of Type II hypersensitivity is the transfusion of an incompatible blood type.

Risk factors include certain viral infections (like Epstein-Barr and HIV), a weakened immune system, and a family history of Hodgkin’s lymphoma.

Helper T cells become activated by an antigen that was engulfed and digested by a phagocyte and presented to them.

Slowing pathogen growth, increasing interferon effect, enhancing phagocytosis, stimulating antibody production, and accelerating tissue repair.

Hodgkin’s lymphoma, also known as Hodgkin’s disease, is a cancer of the immune system characterized by the presence of Reed-Sternberg cells.

IgG is the principal component of the primary and secondary response to an antigen, crosses the placenta, and protects the fetus.

Type IV hypersensitivity is characterized by delayed reactions due to the action of T cells, which take time to recognize the allergen and produce symptoms.

ART includes reverse transcriptase inhibitors, protease inhibitors, fusion inhibitors, entry inhibitors, and integrase inhibitors.