real ling 115

Affective purposes, conveying little or no information.

Languages spoken by ethnic minorities face significant pressure and risk of loss.

Used at home, work, and in most spoken interactions, but rarely written.

Political factors, social pressures, economic factors, social status, inter-marriage, school influence, and children's lack of motivation.

Profile: short phrases or single words 'tags' in L1.

It may privilege its use in areas like government, education, law, and commerce.

Speakers of 'languages' may have linguistic rights, while speakers of 'dialects' almost never have similar rights.

For affective purposes, to initiate, maintain, and strengthen social relations.

Size of the population, speakers' abilities in L1 and L2, and speakers' age.

Classical Arabic is the written form that remains unchanged, while Regional Colloquial Arabic varies in pronunciation, grammar, and vocabulary.

The Ainu language has almost totally disappeared, with very little chance of revival.

Turkish, Persian, and Arabic.

Differences occur in accent (pronunciation), vocabulary, and grammar.

If a word from one language is embedded in a sentence of another language.

Boundary lines marking the distribution of dialect variables.

Teaching and spreading new knowledge of endangered languages among heritage language communities.

To have fun and vary the style of their speech.

A detailed description of Miami in a PhD dissertation and a coordinating center at Miami University.

It provides new hope and inspiration for revitalization efforts.

They are pressured to give up their heritage language and speak Japanese.

Malay, developed as 'Indonesian'.

Yes.

Dialects are commonly associated with a single geographical area or region.

Through their added local properties, they may come to represent a new local national identity.

The Invariant System Hypothesis and the Mutual Intelligibility Hypothesis.

To emphasize what speakers are saying, sometimes repeating words in both L1 and L2.

He was a dedicated language activist who helped revive Hebrew in Israel.

If two speakers can understand each other, they are considered varieties of the same language.

It can express disapproval, social distance, and even anger.

1. A single national official language; 2. A single national language plus one or more official languages; 3. Only an official language with no national language.

It helps avoid inequality and conflict in diverse populations.

Switches between L1 to L2 made at clause boundaries.

Non-linguists may group together varieties that are not mutually intelligible and call them dialects of a single language.

Hebrew was revived after being unused as a spoken language for 2,000 years.

No two individuals use an identical set of rules and vocabulary when they speak.

Major geographical features that separate neighboring populations.

The Endangered Language Foundation, Summer Institute of Linguistics, Yunnan Minority Languages Institute, and USC Problems Without Passports program.

Speaker 1 uses L1, Speaker 2 replies in L2, and they continue alternating languages.

Switching to show education.

Political factors, social pressures, economic factors, social status, inter-marriage, school influence, and lack of motivation.

1. Ethnically neutral, used as a lingua franca. 2. Already used in schools and popular novels. 3. An indigenous language of Indonesia. 4. Used by the independence movement, giving it prestige.

Language documentation and language revitalization.

The unique, personalized way that each individual uses language.

They code-switch in different ways to signal their specific origins within New York.

Religious dialects, where people with different religions speak the same language in different ways.

It was expected to die out due to urbanization and the need for English.

Guaraní.

Classed as dialects of a single language, 'Chinese'.

Not likely.

Immigrant minorities and Indigenous minorities.

Greece was part of the Ottoman Empire for 400 years.

Paraguay or Malaysia at independence.

Better health care, educational opportunities, and affirmative action with reserved university entrance places.

More Han Chinese are settling in the area and marrying Oroqen people due to special privileges.

Switches made within clauses, often multiple times, also known as 'code-mixing'.

Words from L2 are inserted into the L1 base.

Some isoglosses may not line up fully with others.

As a subject, through bilingual education, and summer language camps.

Making aspects of our behavior more like that of others we are interacting with.

Danish, Swedish, and Norwegian; Hindi and Urdu.

Yugoslavia disintegrated into separate states, each declaring its own language.

Switching to stress solidarity.

The writing of the Koran in the 7th century.

A shift from Heritage Language (HL) to Local Majority Language (LML) across three generations.

Japan, Italy, Somalia, Iceland, Vietnam, Thailand.

It may become indigenized, incorporating local words and pronunciations.

Bilingualism can help balance socio-economic improvement with the maintenance of heritage languages (HLs).

By creating large numbers of new words and introducing it into schools.

Speakers in Hong Kong code-switch between Cantonese and English, while those in mainland China primarily use Cantonese.

A phenomenon where dialects blend into each other, making it hard to identify where one ends and another begins.

The opposite of linguistic accommodation and convergence, signaling unfriendliness and social distance.

Serbo-Croatian.

H = Spanish, L = Guaraní.

It avoids inter-ethnic/regional discontent/conflict.

Sentence-bound CS, where each sentence is entirely in one language.

A language that is not usually used in a specific situation, making it unexpected.

They are revitalizing their HLs.

Contact with speakers of other languages in different regions.

1. Unifying. 2. Separatist. 3. Prestige. 4. Frame-of-reference.

Yes.

Yes.

Causes language shift and loss of the Oroqen language.

Linguists who map out where different forms of pronunciation, vocabulary, and grammar occur.

Both L1 and L2 appear in equal amounts, making it difficult to identify a base language.

Mutual understanding or lack of it between speakers.

Danish, Swedish, and Norwegian are mutually intelligible but classified as different languages.

Mandarin, Cantonese, Taiwanese, and Shanghainese in Chinese.

Political events led to their recognition as separate official languages in India post-independence.

Switching between different languages in a single conversation or within a single sentence.

They are often culture-specific and may sound odd when translated into other language settings.

Positive new attitudes, pride, and enthusiasm among EL communities.

Minorities affected by changes in state borders due to international conflict.

Size and concentration of minority groups, arrival of new monolingual immigrants, media availability in HLs, and isolated communities.

A dialect is a variant form of some other form of speech called a language.

A part of a sentence with its own subject and verb.

Pre-school programs designed to immerse children in a language.

A language consists of a set of words (vocabulary) and a set of rules of grammar and pronunciation used uniformly by a population.

It stresses solidarity, closeness with others, and membership in the same group.

Hebrew is now used in all domains of everyday life.

They are classified as varieties of different languages.

Khatarevousa (H) for formal communication and Dhimotiki (L) for informal speech.

Socio-political factors.

Urdu was declared the national language as a symbol of Islamic identity.

It weakens the potential unifying force of having a single NL.

It can stress solidarity or show education.

To some extent.

No, they can become bilingual.

A form of Arabic that has expanded vocabulary for science, technology, and modern life, blending with Classical Arabic.

A form of Greek as a new national language.

Ghanaian English and Abidjanais French.

Linguists assume that the dialects of a language are all mutually intelligible to a large degree.

Uncertain.

To establish good descriptions and records of endangered languages (ELs) before they disappear.

Most people in the US and UK would NOT be considered speakers of 'English'.

Miami is now revived and used as a second language in many interactions.

The British enforced English-only policies in schools starting in 1867.

The Tokyo variety (Yamanote area).

The choice of NL/OL is not easy.

Only recognized Castilian Spanish as a language, classifying others as dialects.

Many were declared as just dialects of Hindi for political reasons.

It refers to increasing prosperity and economic stability leading to a desire to reconnect with heritage backgrounds.

Japanese, Polish, French (in France).

It led to a new language movement, an independence movement, and ultimately civil war, resulting in East Pakistan becoming Bangladesh in 1971.

Literature and formal writing, while L is used for informal contexts like cartoons and social media.

To represent the nation and its projected national identity.

Success with a multi-lingual official language policy.

[1] Imbalance in the knowledge of L1 and L2, [2] Stylistic reasons, [3] Identity-related reasons.

Colloquial Athens’ Greek.

Ancient Greek.

Paraguay, with Guaraní.

A long, shared cultural history, literature, and the same writing system.

All regional varieties are now referred to as languages.

Economic factors, social factors, globalization, urbanization, and colonization.

Malay.

Multiculturalism.

Sinhala was made the unique official language, leading to the banning of Tamil media and subsequent riots.

It is used with family and friends and in informal settings.

To assist people in their daily activities.

Parents often don’t help children learn Hindi.

Endangered.

8 languages.

The old regime collapsed, leading to a resurgence of pride in ethno-linguistic diversity.

Hawaiian was forbidden from schools and there was pressure to use English.

It shows what a dedicated community can achieve.

Purging all foreign, borrowed words.

The language conventionally used in a specific situation.

Through mass education and media.

To downplay diversity and offer linguistic rights to fewer groups.

75% Chinese, 17% Malay, 6% South Asian, 2% other.

They brought diseases that caused 90% of the indigenous population to die in 200 years.

The abilities that individuals develop in the heritage language.

The eagerness that individuals have to use the heritage language, including positive attitudes towards speaking it.

Jakaadaa changed from 'important palace messenger' to 'ambassador'.

By fostering a common national spirit.

Developing vocabulary, creating dictionaries, standardizing pronunciations, describing grammatical rules, and deciding on writing systems.

Arabic script.

'One country, one dress, one language.'

The Ainu were forbidden to learn and speak Japanese or wear Japanese clothing.

In 1987.

There was no common form of Japanese.

Four languages.

Declared to be a dialect of Japanese, despite being mutually unintelligible.

3.7 billion people.

2/3 of the world's languages.

A massive loss of global cultural diversity.

Switching between two distinct varieties of the same language used in different areas of life.

A single language that serves both NL and OL functions.

West Pakistan declared Urdu as the NL, while East Pakistan wanted Bengali as the NL.

The expansion of vocabulary and its symbolic effects.

Chinese favors internal sources, while modern Japanese often borrows words.

Over 2,000,000.

Aimed to block new English loans and imposed fines for government workers using them.

Roman alphabet.

Muslim, Christian, and Jewish dialects.

Widespread demands for linguistic and cultural pluralism to be made national policy.

The Ainu further north began to adopt Russian clothing, names, and religion.

A mixture of English, Hawaiian, Japanese, and Chinese developed due to poorly trained English teachers.

A new revival movement for the Maori language emerged.

The 1946 unification of Balkan states as the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia.

That Japan is a mono-ethnic, mono-cultural, mono-lingual nation.

96%.

Every group's language is an expression of its cultural identity.

It assesses the prospects for successful heritage language maintenance.

Due to strong capacity, opportunity, and desire among speakers.

South Asians, second after Mexican-Americans.

New native or internally-sourced words.

Promotion of new NLs/OLs to spread knowledge.

A language not being transmitted well to younger generations.

There was pressure to speak Japanese and suppression of Chinese and other Taiwanese languages.

Forceful repression of language and culture is not an effective way to stimulate a new national identity.

Will it now be possible to save all endangered languages?

Negative attitudes to L (not respectable for writing/religion) and positive attitudes to L (best for expressing feelings).

It is ethnically neutral and already standardized.

A variety not recognized as a distinct language, related to an officially-recognized language.

Mandarin, Malay, Tamil, English.

Bilingual education.

A situation where two distinct languages pattern in typical H and L ways.

1. Give a new meaning to an old word, 2) Promote regional dialect words, 3) Make new combinations of existing words.

North Korean became almost unintelligible to South Koreans in the 1970s.

It can stop communication and be used for political purposes.

A new all-Taiwanese, anti-Japanese identity emerged.

Participants, setting, topic, and function of speech.

Japan decided to make the Ainu living in Hokkaido into Japanese people, encouraging them to assimilate.

A new interest in Hawaiian culture led to the promotion of the Hawaiian language in group activities.

All segments of a population have equal linguistic advantages.

They can provide knowledge about the physical world, such as local plant life and medicines.

Utilitarian and non-symbolic.

The Chinese government improved the living conditions of minority groups.

It has helped create social stability in a mixed population.

Civil war, terrorism, and ongoing unresolved tensions.

Areas of life/activity and geographical areas.

500,000.

People from different social groups speak the same language in different ways.

More informal language is used with friends/family, while formal styles are used with strangers.

800 language nest centers.

The ban was lifted in 1986, allowing Hawaiian to be reintroduced to schools.

Extra-sentential CS or 'tag-insertion'.

The official language (OL) is often a major world language, not indigenous.

It may have negative colonial associations and can be hard to learn.

1. Two distinct varieties are used by speakers. 2. H and L varieties have different functions. 3. H and L are learned at different times and environments. 4. H is never used in informal conversation.

75% or approximately 600,000 people.

Status Planning, which involves giving special roles to certain languages/varieties.

Winning acceptance by encouraging pride and respect for the new language.

All languages spoken in the Soviet Union were ordered to switch to the Cyrillic alphabet.

It helped them communicate with each other and form a unified opposition.

Early Italian American immigrants and African American Vernacular English.

An ethnic group living in Hokkaido and other islands north of Japan.

In 1978.

A language is a dialect with an army and a navy.

Symbolic, representative, and binding.

To teach children about their family's cultural identity and ethnic traditions, potential employment value, and family cohesion.

Switching between two or more different languages in a single conversation.

A situation where there are three varieties or languages in H/L relations to each other.

Pahari.

12,000.

A policy that mandates new words should only be created from internal resources.

To create a unified, strong national identity through cultural and linguistic assimilation.

A type of speech used in a specific activity or job.

Language used to convey information, such as in news programs and scientific discussions.

Financial support for Maori TV and radio programming, and the establishment of a Maori Language Commission.

It is very expensive as all official materials must be produced in multiple languages.

It is used in formal settings such as religious activities, political discussions, and academic writing.

The chances that speakers have to use the heritage language outside the home in daily life.

In religious activities, political discussions, newspapers, and technical writing.

Purging words of foreign origin to make the national language 'pure' again.

A National Language symbolizes national unity, while an Official Language is used for government business.

Hindi is not widely used in South Asian communities; English is the lingua franca.

Different ways speakers use their language, including formal and informal styles.

Emphasis on uniform national culture, ethnicity, and language.

Maori teaching spread to high schools, creating a new generation of speakers.

Capacity, Opportunity, and Desire.

They are considered 'safe'.

6,000 - 7,000.

To develop a mono-cultural, unilingual national identity.

It may cause special styles of language when speaking to authority figures.

Japan stopped its assimilation policy as the Russian 'threat' receded.

Pre-school centers where elders spoke Maori with children.