What is one frequent use of language mentioned in the text?
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For affective purposes, to initiate, maintain, and strengthen social relations.
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What is one frequent use of language mentioned in the text?
For affective purposes, to initiate, maintain, and strengthen social relations.
What are greetings and small talk used for?
Affective purposes, conveying little or no information.
How do greetings and small talk behave in different cultures?
They are often culture-specific and may sound odd when translated into other language settings.
What is a 'marked language'?
A language that is not usually used in a specific situation, making it unexpected.
What are the special effects of switching from an unmarked language to a marked language?
It can stress solidarity or show education.
What is an example of downwards shifting in language use?
Switching to stress solidarity.
What is an example of upwards shifting in language use?
Switching to show education.
How can manipulating unmarked language use express emotions?
It can express disapproval, social distance, and even anger.
Can attitudes towards code-switching (CS) be predicted?
To some extent.
What factors can influence differences in attitudes towards code-switching?
Size of the population, speakers' abilities in L1 and L2, and speakers' age.
Are the necessary resources and conditions for successful language revitalization available in many places?
Not likely.
What is happening in many EL communities regarding their HLs?
They are revitalizing their HLs.
What positive outcomes can documentation and revitalization work create?
Positive new attitudes, pride, and enthusiasm among EL communities.
Do speakers of ELs need to abandon their HLs to learn another major language?
No, they can become bilingual.
What is the significance of increasing positive reactions to language loss?
It provides new hope and inspiration for revitalization efforts.
What key historical moment fixed the way Arabic is written?
The writing of the Koran in the 7th century.
What are the global prospects for languages spoken by ethnic minorities in the 21st century?
Languages spoken by ethnic minorities face significant pressure and risk of loss.
What is the difference between Classical Arabic and Regional Colloquial Arabic?
Classical Arabic is the written form that remains unchanged, while Regional Colloquial Arabic varies in pronunciation, grammar, and vocabulary.
What are the two common types of minority groups?
Immigrant minorities and Indigenous minorities.
What influences the spoken form of Arabic?
Contact with speakers of other languages in different regions.
What is a 'border-change minority'?
Minorities affected by changes in state borders due to international conflict.
What is Modern Standard Arabic?
A form of Arabic that has expanded vocabulary for science, technology, and modern life, blending with Classical Arabic.
What pressure do the Ainu face regarding their heritage language?
They are pressured to give up their heritage language and speak Japanese.
What is the typical language shift pattern among immigrant groups?
A shift from Heritage Language (HL) to Local Majority Language (LML) across three generations.
How is Regional Colloquial Arabic typically used?
Used at home, work, and in most spoken interactions, but rarely written.
What is the current status of the Ainu language?
The Ainu language has almost totally disappeared, with very little chance of revival.
What factors can speed up language loss?
Political factors, social pressures, economic factors, social status, inter-marriage, school influence, and lack of motivation.
What was Greece's situation before 1832?
Greece was part of the Ottoman Empire for 400 years.
What year did Indonesia gain independence?
What are the common policy types for language recognition?
What factors help in the transmission and maintenance of Heritage Languages (HLs)?
Size and concentration of minority groups, arrival of new monolingual immigrants, media availability in HLs, and isolated communities.
What did Greece aim to establish after gaining independence?
A form of Greek as a new national language.
What language developed as the official language of Indonesia?
Malay, developed as 'Indonesian'.
In which countries is a single national official language common?
Japan, Italy, Somalia, Iceland, Vietnam, Thailand.
What causes speakers not to learn their Heritage Languages (HLs)?
Political factors, social pressures, economic factors, social status, inter-marriage, school influence, and children's lack of motivation.
What languages were major in the Ottoman Empire?
Turkish, Persian, and Arabic.
What are the four advantages of using Indonesian as an official language?
What is an example of a country with a single national language and one or more official languages?
Paraguay or Malaysia at independence.
What functions should national languages fulfill according to the text?
What is the significance of selecting an ethnically-neutral official language?
It helps avoid inequality and conflict in diverse populations.
What is a dialect in relation to language?
A dialect is a variant form of some other form of speech called a language.
Has the unifying function been achieved by Indonesian?
Yes.
What happens to a 'foreign' official language over time?
It may become indigenized, incorporating local words and pronunciations.
What are the main differences between dialects and standard forms of language?
Differences occur in accent (pronunciation), vocabulary, and grammar.
What are short phrases or single words 'tags' in L1 inserted into L2 called?
Profile: short phrases or single words 'tags' in L1.
What socio-economic improvements are mentioned for the Oroqen people?
Better health care, educational opportunities, and affirmative action with reserved university entrance places.
Has the prestige function been achieved by Indonesian?
Yes.
What is a clause?
A part of a sentence with its own subject and verb.
What are examples of distinctive local forms of foreign languages?
Ghanaian English and Abidjanais French.
What geographical association do dialects typically have?
Dialects are commonly associated with a single geographical area or region.
What is the significance of recognizing a variety as a 'language'?
It may privilege its use in areas like government, education, law, and commerce.
What demographic change is affecting the Oroqen community?
More Han Chinese are settling in the area and marrying Oroqen people due to special privileges.
Has the frame-of-reference function been achieved by Indonesian?
Yes.
What is Level 3 code-switching characterized by?
Switches between L1 to L2 made at clause boundaries.
What do linguists assume about the intelligibility of dialects?
Linguists assume that the dialects of a language are all mutually intelligible to a large degree.
How can foreign-imported official languages signal a new local national identity?
Through their added local properties, they may come to represent a new local national identity.
What rights do speakers of 'languages' have compared to speakers of 'dialects'?
Speakers of 'languages' may have linguistic rights, while speakers of 'dialects' almost never have similar rights.
What is intra-sentential code-switching?
Switches made within clauses, often multiple times, also known as 'code-mixing'.
What is a consequence of Han Chinese settling in Oroqen areas?
Causes language shift and loss of the Oroqen language.
How do non-linguists often group varieties of speech?
Non-linguists may group together varieties that are not mutually intelligible and call them dialects of a single language.
Is the separatist function achieved by Indonesian?
Uncertain.
What are 'language nests' in the context of language revitalization?
Pre-school programs designed to immerse children in a language.
What are the two linguistic theories that define 'language'?
The Invariant System Hypothesis and the Mutual Intelligibility Hypothesis.
What is the take-home message regarding language maintenance?
Bilingualism can help balance socio-economic improvement with the maintenance of heritage languages (HLs).
What distinguishes borrowing from one-word code-switching?
If a word from one language is embedded in a sentence of another language.
What is a notable aspect of Singapore's language policy?
Success with a multi-lingual official language policy.
Who are dialect geographers?
Linguists who map out where different forms of pronunciation, vocabulary, and grammar occur.
What is the significance of Hebrew in language revitalization?
Hebrew was revived after being unused as a spoken language for 2,000 years.
What is insertional code-switching?
Words from L2 are inserted into the L1 base.
What does the Invariant System Hypothesis propose?
A language consists of a set of words (vocabulary) and a set of rules of grammar and pronunciation used uniformly by a population.
What is code-switching (CS) often used for in communication?
To emphasize what speakers are saying, sometimes repeating words in both L1 and L2.
What are two major initiatives to combat language endangerment?
Language documentation and language revitalization.
What are isoglosses?
Boundary lines marking the distribution of dialect variables.
How was Hebrew modernized during its revitalization?
By creating large numbers of new words and introducing it into schools.
What is alternational code-switching?
Both L1 and L2 appear in equal amounts, making it difficult to identify a base language.
What is a major problem with the Invariant System Hypothesis?
No two individuals use an identical set of rules and vocabulary when they speak.
What is the goal of language documentation?
To establish good descriptions and records of endangered languages (ELs) before they disappear.
What causes fuzzy dialect boundaries?
Some isoglosses may not line up fully with others.
How does code-switching express identity-related reasons?
It stresses solidarity, closeness with others, and membership in the same group.
What role did Ben Yehuda play in Hebrew revitalization?
He was a dedicated language activist who helped revive Hebrew in Israel.
What is an idiolect?
The unique, personalized way that each individual uses language.
What activities are involved in language revitalization?
Teaching and spreading new knowledge of endangered languages among heritage language communities.
What distinguishes speakers in Hong Kong from those in mainland China?
Speakers in Hong Kong code-switch between Cantonese and English, while those in mainland China primarily use Cantonese.
What are the three major factors that cause people to code-switch?
[1] Imbalance in the knowledge of L1 and L2, [2] Stylistic reasons, [3] Identity-related reasons.
What geographical features typically clarify dialect boundaries?
Major geographical features that separate neighboring populations.
What conclusion can be drawn if a single, invariant set of rules defines 'English'?
Most people in the US and UK would NOT be considered speakers of 'English'.
How can endangered languages be taught in communities?
As a subject, through bilingual education, and summer language camps.
What is the current status of Hebrew in everyday life?
Hebrew is now used in all domains of everyday life.
What does mutual intelligibility imply about two varieties of speech?
If two speakers can understand each other, they are considered varieties of the same language.
How do young Puerto Ricans in New York use code-switching?
They code-switch in different ways to signal their specific origins within New York.
Why do speakers often code-switch for stylistic reasons?
To have fun and vary the style of their speech.
What is a dialect continuum?
A phenomenon where dialects blend into each other, making it hard to identify where one ends and another begins.
What model was proposed for the new National Language (NL) in Greece?
Colloquial Athens’ Greek.
What does the Mutual Intelligibility Hypothesis focus on?
Mutual understanding or lack of it between speakers.
What organizations are helping endangered language communities?
The Endangered Language Foundation, Summer Institute of Linguistics, Yunnan Minority Languages Institute, and USC Problems Without Passports program.
What is the Miami tribe's current language status?
Miami is now revived and used as a second language in many interactions.
What is 'convergence' in the context of code-switching?
Making aspects of our behavior more like that of others we are interacting with.
What happens if two speakers cannot understand each other?
They are classified as varieties of different languages.
What are the three kinds of non-regional dialects?
Religious dialects, where people with different religions speak the same language in different ways.
What was one approach to creating a new 'pure' form of Greek?
Purging all foreign, borrowed words.
What contributed to the success of the Miami language revitalization?
A detailed description of Miami in a PhD dissertation and a coordinating center at Miami University.
What does 'divergence' mean in linguistic terms?
The opposite of linguistic accommodation and convergence, signaling unfriendliness and social distance.
What is a counter-example to the Mutual Intelligibility Hypothesis?
Danish, Swedish, and Norwegian are mutually intelligible but classified as different languages.
Which form of Greek was proposed as the new NL?
Ancient Greek.
What is a common pattern of divergence in code-switching?
Speaker 1 uses L1, Speaker 2 replies in L2, and they continue alternating languages.
What historical event negatively impacted the Maori language?
The British enforced English-only policies in schools starting in 1867.
Which languages are examples of mutually intelligible varieties classified as different languages?
Danish, Swedish, and Norwegian; Hindi and Urdu.
What are the two forms of diglossia that emerged in Greece?
Khatarevousa (H) for formal communication and Dhimotiki (L) for informal speech.
What was the expectation for the Maori language post-WWII?
It was expected to die out due to urbanization and the need for English.
What is the 'unmarked language' in a multilingual society?
The language conventionally used in a specific situation.
What was the common form of Japanese before modern times?
There was no common form of Japanese.
What language did General Tito declare Serbs, Croats, and others spoke?
Serbo-Croatian.
What is an example of varieties that are mutually unintelligible but classified as dialects of the same language?
Mandarin, Cantonese, Taiwanese, and Shanghainese in Chinese.
What is the only country in South America where a majority of the population knows a single indigenous language?
Paraguay, with Guaraní.
What happened in the 1980s regarding the Maori language?
A new revival movement for the Maori language emerged.
Which variety of Japanese was selected as the model in 1916?
The Tokyo variety (Yamanote area).
What happened in 1991 regarding Yugoslavia?
Yugoslavia disintegrated into separate states, each declaring its own language.
What factors influence the classification of varieties as languages or dialects?
Socio-political factors.
What language did the Paraguayan government make the National Language?
Guaraní.
How was the standardized Japanese variety spread?
Through mass education and media.
How many languages were declared after the disintegration of Yugoslavia?
Four languages.
What does extended diglossia refer to in Paraguay?
H = Spanish, L = Guaraní.
How did the political situation affect the classification of Hindi and Urdu?
Political events led to their recognition as separate official languages in India post-independence.
What is a challenge in choosing a national language (NL) or official language (OL) in countries with complex populations?
The choice of NL/OL is not easy.
What are the general attitudes towards the High (H) and Low (L) languages?
Negative attitudes to L (not respectable for writing/religion) and positive attitudes to L (best for expressing feelings).
What is the classification of the many varieties of speech in Chinese?
Classed as dialects of a single language, 'Chinese'.
What was the significance of Urdu in Pakistan after 1947?
Urdu was declared the national language as a symbol of Islamic identity.
What is an advantage of having multiple national languages (NLs)?
It avoids inter-ethnic/regional discontent/conflict.
What unites Han Chinese people despite the variety of dialects?
A long, shared cultural history, literature, and the same writing system.
What is Code-Switching (CS)?
Switching between different languages in a single conversation or within a single sentence.
What historical event led to the unification of Serbian, Croatian, Bosnian, and Montenegrin?
The 1946 unification of Balkan states as the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia.
What is a disadvantage of having multiple national languages (NLs)?
It weakens the potential unifying force of having a single NL.
How is Ryuukyuan classified in relation to Japanese?
Declared to be a dialect of Japanese, despite being mutually unintelligible.
What is Level 1 of Code-Switching?
Sentence-bound CS, where each sentence is entirely in one language.
What did Japanese leadership emphasize about Japan's culture?
That Japan is a mono-ethnic, mono-cultural, mono-lingual nation.
What is an advantage of establishing multiple official languages (OLs)?
All segments of a population have equal linguistic advantages.
What is Level 2 of Code-Switching also known as?
Extra-sentential CS or 'tag-insertion'.
What does Max Weinreich's saying about languages and dialects imply?
A language is a dialect with an army and a navy.
How many people speak the 20 largest languages in the world as their first language?
3.7 billion people.
What is a disadvantage of having multiple official languages (OLs)?
It is very expensive as all official materials must be produced in multiple languages.
What was General Franco's stance on languages in Spain?
Only recognized Castilian Spanish as a language, classifying others as dialects.
What percentage of the world's languages are spoken by only 4% of the population?
96%.
What is a common characteristic of countries with no national language (NL)?
The official language (OL) is often a major world language, not indigenous.
What change occurred regarding regional varieties of languages in Spain?
All regional varieties are now referred to as languages.
What proportion of the world's languages are considered endangered if defined as having 20,000 speakers or less?
2/3 of the world's languages.
What is an advantage of using a non-indigenous official language (OL)?
It is ethnically neutral and already standardized.
What did India's post-independence national census declare about regional languages?
Many were declared as just dialects of Hindi for political reasons.
What is one reason to be concerned about the loss of languages?
Every group's language is an expression of its cultural identity.
What is a disadvantage of using a non-indigenous official language (OL)?
It may have negative colonial associations and can be hard to learn.
Why do governments often wish to recognize fewer languages?
To downplay diversity and offer linguistic rights to fewer groups.
What are the characteristics of National Languages (NLs)?
Symbolic, representative, and binding.
What is a consequence of language death?
A massive loss of global cultural diversity.
What is a dialect?
A variety not recognized as a distinct language, related to an officially-recognized language.
How can different languages contribute to our knowledge?
They can provide knowledge about the physical world, such as local plant life and medicines.
What is the ethnic composition of the population mentioned?
75% Chinese, 17% Malay, 6% South Asian, 2% other.
Why do parents believe heritage languages (HLs) are important?
To teach children about their family's cultural identity and ethnic traditions, potential employment value, and family cohesion.
What are some causes of language endangerment?
Economic factors, social factors, globalization, urbanization, and colonization.
What is diglossia?
Switching between two distinct varieties of the same language used in different areas of life.
What are the official languages (OLs) listed?
Mandarin, Malay, Tamil, English.
What are the characteristics of Official Languages (OLs)?
Utilitarian and non-symbolic.
What is the Generation 4 Effect?
It refers to increasing prosperity and economic stability leading to a desire to reconnect with heritage backgrounds.
What are the four distinguishing properties of diglossia?
What impact did European settlers have on the indigenous population in the Americas?
They brought diseases that caused 90% of the indigenous population to die in 200 years.
What is the national language (NL) mentioned?
Malay.
What is a national-official language?
A single language that serves both NL and OL functions.
What does the Capacity-Opportunity-Desire (COD) framework assess?
It assesses the prospects for successful heritage language maintenance.
What is the primary function of the H variety in diglossia?
It is used in formal settings such as religious activities, political discussions, and academic writing.
What educational approach is emphasized for everyone?
Bilingual education.
What change occurred for the Oroqen people in NW China starting in the 1950s?
The Chinese government improved the living conditions of minority groups.
Which languages are examples of national-official languages?
Japanese, Polish, French (in France).
What does 'Capacity' refer to in the COD framework?
The abilities that individuals develop in the heritage language.
What is code-switching?
Switching between two or more different languages in a single conversation.
What concept is associated with 'linguistic pluralism'?
Multiculturalism.
What was the language situation in Pakistan after its formation in 1947?
West Pakistan declared Urdu as the NL, while East Pakistan wanted Bengali as the NL.
What does 'Opportunity' refer to in the COD framework?
The chances that speakers have to use the heritage language outside the home in daily life.
What is extended diglossia?
A situation where two distinct languages pattern in typical H and L ways.
How has government policy on multilingualism impacted society?
It has helped create social stability in a mixed population.
What was the outcome of the language conflict in East Pakistan?
It led to a new language movement, an independence movement, and ultimately civil war, resulting in East Pakistan becoming Bangladesh in 1971.
What does 'Desire' refer to in the COD framework?
The eagerness that individuals have to use the heritage language, including positive attitudes towards speaking it.
What is triglossia?
A situation where there are three varieties or languages in H/L relations to each other.
What was the language policy in Sri Lanka after independence in 1948?
Sinhala was made the unique official language, leading to the banning of Tamil media and subsequent riots.
What is 'Corpus Planning' in the context of language?
The expansion of vocabulary and its symbolic effects.
Why is Pahari stable and well-maintained in the UK?
Due to strong capacity, opportunity, and desire among speakers.
In what contexts is the H variety predominantly used?
In religious activities, political discussions, newspapers, and technical writing.
What are the three ways to create new words through internal sourcing?
What were the consequences of making Sinhala the unique official language in Sri Lanka?
Civil war, terrorism, and ongoing unresolved tensions.
What percentage of people from Pakistan in the UK come from the Mirpur area?
75% or approximately 600,000 people.
What types of writing are typically done in the H variety?
Literature and formal writing, while L is used for informal contexts like cartoons and social media.
What is an example of a new meaning given to an old word in Hausa?
Jakaadaa changed from 'important palace messenger' to 'ambassador'.
What is the second largest language spoken in the UK after English?
Pahari.
How is the L variety typically used in social contexts?
It is used with family and friends and in informal settings.
What is the difference in word sourcing between Chinese and Japanese?
Chinese favors internal sources, while modern Japanese often borrows words.
What demographic is the fastest-growing minority group in the USA?
South Asians, second after Mexican-Americans.
What does language purification involve?
Purging words of foreign origin to make the national language 'pure' again.
What are Official Languages (OLs) specified for?
Areas of life/activity and geographical areas.
What is the primary function of a National Language (NL)?
To represent the nation and its projected national identity.
How do National Languages (NLs) unify populations?
By fostering a common national spirit.
What was the Hindi speaker population in 1960?
12,000.
What is the primary purpose of Official Languages (OLs)?
To assist people in their daily activities.
What is the current Hindi speaker population?
Over 2,000,000.
