p.58
Major Elements of the Human Body
What is the major function of the cytosol?
Glycolysis, fatty acid synthesis.
p.63
Experimental Approach in Biochemistry
What does determining the structure of a biomolecule allow?
Detailed correlations to be made between structure and function.
p.41
Common Chemical Reactions in Living Organisms
What type of reaction involves the transfer of electrons?
Oxidation-reduction (redox) reactions.
p.53
Subcellular Fractionation and Its Importance
How many different centrifugation steps are used in the classic differential centrifugation method?
Three different centrifugation steps at successively greater speeds.
p.52
Subcellular Fractionation and Its Importance
What is the purpose of homogenization in subcellular fractionation?
To disrupt cells under mild conditions and extract organelles.
p.34
Common Chemical Reactions in Living Organisms
What are some of the most frequent biochemical reactions?
Nucleophilic substitution, elimination, addition, isomerization, oxidation-reduction (redox), and hydrolysis reactions.
p.61
Experimental Approach in Biochemistry
Why is isolation of biomolecules in pure form important?
To determine the function of any biomolecule.
p.48
Subcellular Fractionation and Its Importance
Why is the rat hepatocyte extensively studied from a biochemical standpoint?
Due to its availability in relatively large amounts, suitability for fractionation studies, diversity of functions, and containing major organelles found in eukaryotic cells.
p.62
Isolation and Characterization of Metabolites and Enzymes
What did the introduction of the detergent SDS permit for electrophoresis?
The solubilization of many proteins that were previously insoluble.
p.12
Major Elements of the Human Body
What are the major constituents of most biomolecules?
Carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, and nitrogen.
p.32
Common Chemical Reactions in Living Organisms
What are the most frequent reactions encountered in biochemical processes?
Nucleophilic substitution, elimination, addition, isomerization, oxidation-reduction (redox), and hydrolysis reactions.
p.55
Subcellular Fractionation and Its Importance
What is subcellular fractionation?
A biochemical method involving centrifugation to separate cellular components.
p.49
Subcellular Fractionation and Its Importance
Why is it necessary to isolate organelles in relatively pure form?
To study their function in detail, free of significant contamination by other organelles.
p.18
Important Functional Groups in Biomolecules
What determines the chemical properties of organic molecules?
Specific arrangement of atoms called functional groups.
p.7
Role of Biochemistry in Health Sciences
What is the reciprocal relationship between biochemistry and medicine?
All diseases are manifestations of abnormalities of molecules, chemical reactions, or processes, hence a reciprocal relationship exists.
p.41
Common Chemical Reactions in Living Organisms
What is the role of AH2 in the oxidation-reduction reaction?
AH2 acts as a reducing agent.
p.6
Role of Biochemistry in Health Sciences
What is the biochemical viewpoint of health?
A situation in which all intra- and extracellular reactions in the body are proceeding at rates in proportion with its maximal survival in the physiologic state.
p.9
Role of Biochemistry in Health Sciences
What are the major causes of diseases related to immunologic reactions?
Anaphylaxis and autoimmune diseases.
p.59
Experimental Approach in Biochemistry
What are the three major components of the experimental approach used in biochemistry?
1. Isolation of organelles and biomolecules found in cells. 2. Determination of structures of biomolecules. 3. Analyses, using various preparations, of the function and metabolism of biomolecules.
p.65
Experimental Approach in Biochemistry
What makes certain enzymes powerful tools in determining the structural features of biomolecules?
The known specificity of certain enzymes.
p.41
Common Chemical Reactions in Living Organisms
What are the most frequent biochemical reactions?
Nucleophilic substitution, elimination, addition, isomerization, oxidation-reduction (redox), and hydrolysis reactions.
p.67
Experimental Approach in Biochemistry
Why was the whole animal considered too complex for definitive answers in biochemical research?
It was too complex to permit definitive answers to many questions.
p.49
Experimental Approach in Biochemistry
What are the three physical techniques required for subcellular fractionation?
Extraction, Homogenization, Centrifugation.
p.64
Experimental Approach in Biochemistry
What is the purpose of determining the structure of a biomolecule?
To allow detailed correlations to be made between structure and function.
p.42
Common Chemical Reactions in Living Organisms
What are the most frequent biochemical reactions?
Nucleophilic substitution, elimination, addition, isomerization, oxidation-reduction (redox), and hydrolysis reactions.
p.50
Experimental Approach in Biochemistry
What conditions are necessary for the extraction of organelles and biomolecules?
Mild conditions, such as the use of aqueous solutions, avoidance of extremes of pH and osmotic pressure, and avoidance of high temperatures.
p.61
Experimental Approach in Biochemistry
What are the major methods used to separate and purify biomolecules?
Salt fractionation, chromatography, electrophoresis, ultracentrifugation, and others.
p.51
Subcellular Fractionation and Its Importance
What does STKM stand for in the context of subcellular fractionation?
STKM stands for a solution consisting of 0.25 M sucrose, adjusted to pH 7.4 by 0.05 M TRIS (tris - [hydroxymethyl]aminomethane) HCl buffer, and K+ and Mg2+ at near physiologic concentrations.
p.31
Common Chemical Reactions in Living Organisms
Why do the thousands of reactions that occur in cells appear overwhelming at first look?
Due to the large number of reactions.
p.23
Important Functional Groups in Biomolecules
What is the significance of the Ester functional group?
It is polar and participates in H-bond formation.
p.14
Major Organic Biomolecules of the Human Body
What are polysaccharides made up of?
Simple carbohydrates (monosaccharides).
p.57
Isolation and Characterization of Metabolites and Enzymes
How can cell fractions obtained through subcellular fractionation be assessed?
By measuring marker enzymes and chemicals, and by using the electron microscope.
p.63
Experimental Approach in Biochemistry
What is the next step after purifying a biomolecule?
Determining its structure.
p.38
Common Chemical Reactions in Living Organisms
What is an example of an addition reaction in biochemical processes?
Hydration, such as the hydration of fumarate to form malate.
p.39
Common Chemical Reactions in Living Organisms
What are some of the most frequent biochemical reactions?
Nucleophilic substitution, elimination, addition, isomerization, oxidation-reduction (redox), and hydrolysis reactions.
p.53
Subcellular Fractionation and Its Importance
What is the method used for fractionation of the contents of the homogenate?
Differential centrifugation.
p.6
Role of Biochemistry in Health Sciences
How does WHO define health?
As a state of complete physical, mental, and social well-being and not merely the absence of disease and infirmity.
p.61
Isolation and Characterization of Metabolites and Enzymes
What is necessary to purify a biomolecule to homogeneity?
A combination of successive use of several methods.
p.37
Common Chemical Reactions in Living Organisms
What happens in an addition reaction?
Two molecules combine to form a single product.
p.36
Common Chemical Reactions in Living Organisms
What is an example of an elimination reaction in biochemistry?
The dehydration of 2-phosphoglycerate to form phosphoenolpyruvate.
p.56
Subcellular Fractionation and Its Importance
What is mostly found in the mitochondrial fraction?
Mitochondria, lysosomes, and peroxisomes.
p.28
Important Functional Groups in Biomolecules
What is the significance of the Alkenyl functional group in biomolecules?
It is an important structural component, such as in lipids.
p.30
Common Chemical Reactions in Living Organisms
What is a metabolic pathway?
A series of reactions responsible for the synthesis of a more complex compound from one or more simple compounds (anabolic), or for the degradation of a compound to its end product (catabolic).
p.40
Common Chemical Reactions in Living Organisms
What are the most frequent reactions encountered in biochemical processes?
Nucleophilic substitution, elimination, addition, isomerization, oxidation-reduction (redox), and hydrolysis reactions.
p.46
Developments in the Field of Biochemistry
What developments helped usher in a period of unparalleled activity in biochemistry and cell histology after WWII?
Increasing availability of the electron microscope, introduction of methods for cell disruption under mild conditions, and increasing availability of the high-speed, refrigerated ultracentrifuge.
p.68
Experimental Approach in Biochemistry
What was the initial approach for biochemical research on humans and animals?
Performed at the level of the whole animal.
p.8
Role of Biochemistry in Health Sciences
Name some biologic agents that can cause diseases.
Viruses, bacteria, fungi, higher forms of parasites.
p.17
Major Elements of the Human Body
What is the normal chemical composition of carbohydrate in a 65-kg man?
1 kg, which is 1.5% of the body mass.
p.48
Subcellular Fractionation and Its Importance
What are the major organelles found in a rat hepatocyte?
Nucleus, mitochondria, endoplasmic reticulum, free ribosomes, Golgi apparatus, lysosomes, peroxisomes, plasma membrane, and certain cytoskeletal elements.
p.63
Experimental Approach in Biochemistry
What is the purpose of Table 1 - 5 in biochemistry?
To list the major methods used to analyze the structures of biomolecules.
p.22
Important Functional Groups in Biomolecules
What is the family name of the functional group -COOH?
Carboxylic acid (R-COOH).
p.14
Major Organic Biomolecules of the Human Body
What are the major complex biomolecules found in cells and tissues of higher animals?
Nucleic acids (DNA and RNA), proteins, carbohydrates (polysaccharides), and lipids.
p.36
Common Chemical Reactions in Living Organisms
What are the most frequent biochemical reactions?
Nucleophilic substitution, elimination, addition, isomerization, oxidation-reduction (redox), and hydrolysis reactions.
p.30
Common Chemical Reactions in Living Organisms
What are the two types of metabolic processes?
Catabolism and Anabolism.
p.67
Experimental Approach in Biochemistry
What does the isolated perfused organ method allow the study of?
An organ removed from the influence of other organs or the nervous system.
p.21
Important Functional Groups in Biomolecules
What is the significance of the ketone functional group?
It is polar and participates in H-bond formation.
p.64
Experimental Approach in Biochemistry
What is the use of acid or alkaline hydrolysis in determining the structure of biomolecules?
To degrade the biomolecule under study into its basic constituents.
p.51
Experimental Approach in Biochemistry
What are the components of the STKM solution used for extraction of organelles?
0.25 M sucrose, 0.05 M TRIS HCl buffer, K+ and Mg2+ at near physiologic concentrations.
p.61
Isolation and Characterization of Metabolites and Enzymes
What does the sequential use of several techniques generally permit?
Purification of most biomolecules.
p.4
Definition, Aims, and Scope of Biochemistry
What aspects of chemistry does biochemistry combine?
All the fields of chemistry.
p.56
Subcellular Fractionation and Its Importance
What do the contents of the final supernatant correspond to?
Those of the cytosol (cell sap).
p.33
Common Chemical Reactions in Living Organisms
What are electrophiles?
Atoms or groups that are transferred from one nucleophile to another.
p.4
Common Chemical Reactions in Living Organisms
What do biochemists study in relation to the speed of reactions?
How fast reactions occur.
p.69
Isolation and Characterization of Metabolites and Enzymes
Why is isolation of the cloned gene vital for studying the details of its structure and regulation?
It can reveal the amino acid sequence of the enzyme or protein for which it codes.
p.8
Role of Biochemistry in Health Sciences
How can lack of oxygen lead to diseases?
Through loss of blood supply, depletion of the oxygen-carrying capacity of blood, and poisoning of oxidative enzymes.
p.68
Subcellular Fractionation and Its Importance
What is the purpose of using tissue slices in biochemical research?
To remove the sliced tissue from other influences.
p.68
Subcellular Fractionation and Its Importance
What is the advantage of using whole cells in biochemical research?
Particularly applicable to blood cells, which can be purified relatively easily.
p.58
Major Elements of the Human Body
What is the major function of the nucleus?
Site of chromosomes and transcription.
p.60
Isolation and Characterization of Metabolites and Enzymes
What is meant by purifying a biomolecule to homogeneity?
Freedom from contamination by any other biomolecule.
p.66
Experimental Approach in Biochemistry
What was the initial level of biochemical research on humans and animals?
At the level of the whole animal.
p.65
Experimental Approach in Biochemistry
What are the routine methods of choice for structural determination in biochemical methods?
Mass spectrometry (MS) and nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) spectroscopy.
p.66
Experimental Approach in Biochemistry
What preparations were developed to simplify biochemical research?
Simpler in vitro preparations.
p.64
Experimental Approach in Biochemistry
What are the major methods used to analyze the structures of biomolecules?
Elemental analysis, spectroscopy, acid/alkaline hydrolysis, enzyme degradation, mass spectrometry, specific sequencing methods, and X-ray crystallography.
p.53
Subcellular Fractionation and Its Importance
What does each step of the classic differential centrifugation method yield?
A pellet and a supernatant.
p.33
Common Chemical Reactions in Living Organisms
What are the most frequent reactions encountered in biochemical processes?
Nucleophilic substitution, elimination, addition, isomerization, oxidation-reduction (redox), and hydrolysis reactions.
p.12
Major Elements of the Human Body
Name some elements encountered on an almost daily basis in medical practice in dealing with patients with electrolyte imbalances, iron-deficiency anemia, and thyroid diseases.
Potassium, sulfur, sodium, chlorine, magnesium, iron, manganese, and iodine.
p.42
Common Chemical Reactions in Living Organisms
What is the role of NADH in the oxidation-reduction reaction?
It acts as a reducing agent.
p.27
Major Organic Biomolecules of the Human Body
What is the structure of L-Cysteine?
H2N-C-COOH with CH2SH side chain.
p.69
Experimental Approach in Biochemistry
Why was the whole animal considered too complex for definitive answers in biochemical research?
It presented many complications.
p.5
Role of Biochemistry in Health Sciences
What is the importance of biochemistry in genetics?
Biochemistry of nucleic acids is at the heart of genetics.
p.8
Role of Biochemistry in Health Sciences
What are examples of chemical agents that can cause diseases?
Certain toxic compounds, therapeutic drugs, etc.
p.40
Common Chemical Reactions in Living Organisms
What occurs in redox reactions?
Transfer of electrons from a donor (reducing agent) to an electron acceptor (oxidizing agent).
p.4
Important Functional Groups in Biomolecules
What do biochemists concentrate on in living systems?
The chemical reactions that are occurring.
p.58
Major Elements of the Human Body
What is the major function of the plasma membrane?
Transport of molecules in and out of cells; intercellular adhesion and communication.
p.47
Experimental Approach in Biochemistry
What did the use of electron microscope reveal in cellular components?
Many previously unknown or poorly observable components.
p.11
Role of Biochemistry in Health Sciences
What is the use of measurement of blood T4 or TSH in the neonatal diagnosis of congenital hypothyroidism?
To act as screening tests for the early diagnosis of congenital hypothyroidism.
p.66
Experimental Approach in Biochemistry
Why was it realized that the whole animal was too complex for definitive answers in biochemical research?
Because it presented many complications.
p.16
Major Organic Biomolecules of the Human Body
What are the chief components of the human body?
Protein, fat, carbohydrate, water, and minerals.
p.18
Important Functional Groups in Biomolecules
What happens when hydrogen atoms on organic molecules are replaced by different functional groups?
Different families of organic compounds result.
p.7
Major Organic Biomolecules of the Human Body
What are the major organic biomolecules of the human body?
Nucleic acids, proteins, lipids, and carbohydrates.
p.15
Major Organic Biomolecules of the Human Body
Are lipids polymers of fatty acids?
No, lipids are not polymers of fatty acids.
p.29
Common Chemical Reactions in Living Organisms
What are the two types of metabolic processes?
Catabolism and anabolism.
p.64
Experimental Approach in Biochemistry
What is the purpose of specific sequencing methods in determining the structures of biomolecules?
To determine the sequence of proteins and nucleic acids.
p.28
Important Functional Groups in Biomolecules
What are the two configurations of the Alkenyl functional group?
cis and trans configuration.
p.5
Role of Biochemistry in Health Sciences
What is the relationship between immunology and biochemistry?
Immunology uses numerous biochemical techniques.
p.5
Role of Biochemistry in Health Sciences
Why is a sound knowledge of biochemistry and physiology important in pharmacology and pharmacy?
Pharmacology and pharmacy require a sound knowledge of biochemistry and physiology.
p.4
Role of Biochemistry in Health Sciences
How is biochemistry similar to molecular biology?
Both fields study living systems at the molecular level.
p.2
Definition, Aims, and Scope of Biochemistry
What is the definition of biochemistry?
The study of chemical processes within and relating to living organisms.
p.58
Major Elements of the Human Body
What is the major function of the peroxisome?
Degradation of certain fatty acids and amino acids; production and degradation of hydrogen peroxide.
p.47
Subcellular Fractionation and Its Importance
What method permitted the isolation and analysis of cellular components in vitro?
Disruption and ultracentrifugation.
p.55
Subcellular Fractionation and Its Importance
What are the major constituents of the three fractions obtained through subcellular fractionation?
Nuclei, mitochondria, and microsomes.
p.52
Common Chemical Reactions in Living Organisms
What forces are exerted on cells during homogenization?
Mechanical shearing forces.
p.67
Experimental Approach in Biochemistry
What preparations were developed to simplify biochemical research?
Simpler in vitro preparations.
p.52
Experimental Approach in Biochemistry
What is the resulting solution called after homogenization?
Homogenate, which contains many intact organelles.
p.31
Role of Biochemistry in Health Sciences
What are the primary functions of metabolism?
Acquisition and utilization of energy, synthesis of molecules needed for cell structure and functioning, and removal of waste products.
p.43
Common Chemical Reactions in Living Organisms
What are the most frequent biochemical reactions?
Nucleophilic substitution, elimination, addition, isomerization, oxidation-reduction (redox), and hydrolysis reactions.
p.30
Common Chemical Reactions in Living Organisms
What is catabolism?
A set of metabolic pathways that breaks down molecules into smaller units, which are either oxidized to release energy, or used in other reactions.
p.69
Experimental Approach in Biochemistry
What was the initial level of biochemical research on humans and animals?
The level of the whole animal.
p.10
Role of Biochemistry in Health Sciences
How are biochemical investigations used to demonstrate the nature of genetic defects in cystic fibrosis?
By revealing the nature of the genetic defects.
p.51
Experimental Approach in Biochemistry
How are organic solvents used in subcellular fractionation?
Organic solvents are used for the extraction of lipids and nucleic acids.
p.10
Role of Biochemistry in Health Sciences
How are biochemical investigations used to suggest rational treatment of diseases?
By recommending specific treatments based on biochemical findings.
p.4
Major Organic Biomolecules of the Human Body
Why does organic chemistry play a large part in biochemistry?
Because carbon is the element of life.
p.69
Isolation and Characterization of Metabolites and Enzymes
What is the role of isolation and characterization of metabolites and enzymes in biochemical analysis?
It is a vital part in the analysis of any chemical reaction or pathway.
p.29
Common Chemical Reactions in Living Organisms
What do all life processes consist of?
Chemical reactions catalyzed by enzymes.
p.8
Role of Biochemistry in Health Sciences
What are genetic disorders in the context of biochemistry?
They can be congenital or molecular.
p.45
Common Chemical Reactions in Living Organisms
What type of reaction involves the transfer of electrons between chemical species?
Oxidation-reduction (redox) reaction.
p.68
Subcellular Fractionation and Its Importance
How are isolated cell organelles used in biochemical research?
Extensively used to study the function of mitochondrion, the endoplasmic reticulum, ribosomes, etc.
p.2
Subcellular Fractionation and Its Importance
What is subcellular fractionation and why is it important?
It is the process of isolating and studying the components of a cell, important for understanding cellular functions.
p.26
Important Functional Groups in Biomolecules
What is the significance of the functional group in Asparagine?
Polar, but does not bear a charge. Participates in H-bond formation.
p.11
Role of Biochemistry in Health Sciences
How is the progress of infectious hepatitis monitored?
By using the plasma enzyme alanine aminotransferase (ALT).
p.37
Common Chemical Reactions in Living Organisms
What are the most frequent reactions encountered in biochemical processes?
Nucleophilic substitution, elimination, addition, isomerization, oxidation-reduction (redox), and hydrolysis reactions.
p.3
Definition, Aims, and Scope of Biochemistry
What is the focus of Biochemistry?
The chemistry of living organisms and the chemical constituents of living cells.
p.22
Important Functional Groups in Biomolecules
What is the significance of the carboxyl functional group?
It is polar and participates in H-bond formation. It is weakly acidic and bears a negative charge when it donates a proton.
p.39
Common Chemical Reactions in Living Organisms
What is one of the most common biochemical isomerization reactions?
The interconversion between aldose and ketose sugars.
p.41
Common Chemical Reactions in Living Organisms
What is the role of O2 in the oxidation-reduction reaction?
O2 acts as an oxidizing agent.
p.6
Role of Biochemistry in Health Sciences
What are the major prerequisites for the maintenance of health?
Optimal dietary intake of vitamins, nutritionally essential amino acids, nutritionally essential fatty acids, various minerals, water, and carbohydrates.
p.53
Subcellular Fractionation and Its Importance
What are the three pellets obtained from the overall procedure of classic differential centrifugation?
Nuclear, mitochondrial, and microsomal fractions.
p.30
Common Chemical Reactions in Living Organisms
What is anabolism?
A set of metabolic pathways that construct or build molecules from smaller units.
p.54
Subcellular Fractionation and Its Importance
What are the names of the three pellets obtained in the classic differential centrifugation method?
Nuclear, mitochondrial, and microsomal fractions.
p.15
Major Organic Biomolecules of the Human Body
What are biopolymers composed of?
Repeating units of their building blocks.
p.17
Major Elements of the Human Body
What is the normal chemical composition of water in a 65-kg man?
40 kg, which is 61.6% of the body mass.
p.33
Common Chemical Reactions in Living Organisms
What happens in a nucleophilic substitution reaction?
The attacking species (nucleophile) is attracted to an electrophile, forming a new bond and breaking the old one.
p.29
Common Chemical Reactions in Living Organisms
What is a metabolic pathway?
A series of chemical reactions occurring within a cell.
p.68
Subcellular Fractionation and Its Importance
What is the purpose of using homogenate in biochemical research?
To ensure a cell-free preparation and study the effects of specific compounds.
p.2
Major Elements of the Human Body
What are the major elements of the human body?
Oxygen, carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen, calcium, and phosphorus.
p.60
Experimental Approach in Biochemistry
What is necessary to purify a biomolecule to homogeneity?
A combination of successive use of several methods.
p.62
Isolation and Characterization of Metabolites and Enzymes
What did the introduction of sodium dodecyl sulfate-polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis (SDS-PAGE) make possible?
Analysis of membrane and many other proteins.
p.67
Experimental Approach in Biochemistry
What was the initial level of biochemical research on humans and animals?
At the level of the whole animal.
p.3
Definition, Aims, and Scope of Biochemistry
What does Biochemistry encompass?
Large areas of cell biology, molecular biology, and molecular genetics.
p.39
Common Chemical Reactions in Living Organisms
What do isomerization reactions involve?
The intramolecular shift of atoms or groups.
p.65
Experimental Approach in Biochemistry
Which method provides the most detailed information about the structure of biomolecules?
X-ray diffraction and crystallography.
p.57
Subcellular Fractionation and Its Importance
What is subcellular fractionation?
The process of isolating organelles from cells using centrifugation and different homogenization media.
p.56
Subcellular Fractionation and Its Importance
What does the nuclear fraction mostly contain?
Nuclei, plasma membrane, and unruptured cells.
p.42
Common Chemical Reactions in Living Organisms
What is the role of NAD+ in the oxidation-reduction reaction?
It acts as an oxidizing agent.
p.27
Important Functional Groups in Biomolecules
What is the significance of the sulfhydryl group in biomolecules?
It does not participate in H-bond formation and is less soluble in water than alcohols.
p.43
Common Chemical Reactions in Living Organisms
What is the product of an oxidation-reduction reaction involving pyruvate and NADH?
Lactate, NAD+ and a reducing agent.
p.19
Important Functional Groups in Biomolecules
What is the significance of the hydroxyl functional group?
It is polar and participates in H-bond formation.
p.8
Role of Biochemistry in Health Sciences
What are the major causes of diseases in biochemistry?
Physical agents, chemical agents, biologic agents, lack of oxygen, and genetic disorders.
p.8
Role of Biochemistry in Health Sciences
Give examples of physical agents that can cause diseases.
Mechanical trauma, extreme temperature, sudden changes in atmospheric pressure, radiation, electric shock.
p.10
Role of Biochemistry in Health Sciences
What is an example of rational treatment of diseases using biochemical investigations?
Use of a diet low in phenylalanine for the treatment of phenylketonuria (PKU).
p.46
Experimental Approach in Biochemistry
What is the significance of the increasing availability of the electron microscope?
It contributed to a period of unparalleled activity in biochemistry and cell histology.
p.46
Experimental Approach in Biochemistry
What is the significance of the increasing availability of the high-speed, refrigerated ultracentrifuge?
It is capable of generating centrifugal forces sufficient to separate the components of disrupted cells from one another without overheating them.
p.58
Subcellular Fractionation and Its Importance
What is subcellular fractionation?
A biochemical method involving centrifugation to isolate organelles in more or less pure form.
p.68
Subcellular Fractionation and Its Importance
What is the purpose of subfractionation of organelles in biochemical research?
Extensively used in studies of mitochondrial function.
p.60
Isolation and Characterization of Metabolites and Enzymes
Why is the isolation of biomolecules in pure form important?
To determine the function of the biomolecule.
p.38
Common Chemical Reactions in Living Organisms
What are the most frequent biochemical reactions?
Nucleophilic substitution, elimination, addition, isomerization, oxidation-reduction (redox), and hydrolysis reactions.
p.3
Definition, Aims, and Scope of Biochemistry
What is the aim of Biochemistry?
To describe and explain, in molecular terms, all chemical processes of living cells.
p.35
Common Chemical Reactions in Living Organisms
What are the most frequent biochemical reactions?
Nucleophilic substitution, elimination, addition, isomerization, oxidation-reduction (redox), and hydrolysis reactions.
p.65
Experimental Approach in Biochemistry
How are the structures of many proteins and complex carbohydrate chains determined?
By high-resolution NMR spectroscopy.
p.20
Important Functional Groups in Biomolecules
What is the significance of the aldehyde functional group?
It is polar and participates in H-bond formation.
p.16
Important Functional Groups in Biomolecules
What allows water to function as a solvent in the human body?
Its polar nature and ability to form hydrogen bonds.
p.67
Experimental Approach in Biochemistry
Which organs are particularly suitable for the isolated perfused organ method?
Liver, heart, and kidney.
p.9
Role of Biochemistry in Health Sciences
What are the major causes of diseases related to nutritional imbalances?
Deficiencies and excesses.
p.50
Experimental Approach in Biochemistry
What can cause significant losses of activity during extraction at room temperature?
The action of various enzymes that are released when cells are disrupted.
p.43
Common Chemical Reactions in Living Organisms
What is the role of NADH in the oxidation-reduction reaction?
It acts as a reducing agent.
p.33
Common Chemical Reactions in Living Organisms
What are nucleophiles most commonly?
Negatively-charged atoms or groups.
p.43
Common Chemical Reactions in Living Organisms
What is the role of NAD+ in the oxidation-reduction reaction?
It acts as an oxidizing agent.
p.45
Common Chemical Reactions in Living Organisms
What are the most frequent reactions encountered in biochemical processes?
Nucleophilic substitution, elimination, addition, isomerization, oxidation-reduction (redox), and hydrolysis reactions.
p.5
Role of Biochemistry in Health Sciences
In what areas of pathology are biochemical approaches being used?
Biochemical approaches are being used increasingly to study the basic aspects of pathology, such as inflammation, cell injury, and cancer.
p.45
Common Chemical Reactions in Living Organisms
What are the products of the hydrolysis of ATP?
Adenosine diphosphate (ADP) and inorganic phosphate (Pi).
p.58
Major Elements of the Human Body
What is the major function of the mitochondrion?
Citric acid cycle and oxidative phosphorylation.
p.58
Major Elements of the Human Body
What is the major function of the endoplasmic reticulum?
Protein synthesis (RER); synthesis of various lipids (SER), oxidation of many xenobiotics (SER).
p.52
Experimental Approach in Biochemistry
How are organs and their cells disrupted during the process of homogenization?
By rotating a manually operated or motor-driven pestle within a glass tube containing minced fragments of the organs and a homogenizing medium.
p.55
Subcellular Fractionation and Its Importance
What is a marker enzyme or chemical in the context of subcellular fractionation?
An enzyme or chemical almost exclusively confined to one particular organelle, indicating the presence or absence of that organelle in a fraction.
p.54
Subcellular Fractionation and Its Importance
What is the method used for fractionation of the contents of the homogenate?
Differential centrifugation.
p.61
Isolation and Characterization of Metabolites and Enzymes
How are biomolecules precipitated in salt fractionation?
By precipitation with ammonium sulfate.
p.31
Developments in the Field of Biochemistry
What allows simplifying the overall picture of metabolism?
The relatively small number of reaction types, simple mechanisms used in biochemical reactions, and the relatively few number of reactions of central importance.
p.16
Major Organic Biomolecules of the Human Body
What is the order of abundance of components in the human body after water?
Protein, fat, minerals, and carbohydrates.
p.15
Major Organic Biomolecules of the Human Body
Which biomolecules are considered biopolymers?
Nucleic acids, proteins, and polysaccharides.
p.5
Role of Biochemistry in Health Sciences
How does physiology relate to biochemistry?
Physiology overlaps with biochemistry almost completely.
p.17
Major Elements of the Human Body
What is the normal chemical composition of fat in a 65-kg man?
9 kg, which is 13.8% of the body mass.
p.17
Major Elements of the Human Body
What is the normal chemical composition of minerals in a 65-kg man?
4 kg, which is 6.1% of the body mass.
p.5
Role of Biochemistry in Health Sciences
How do poisons relate to biochemistry?
Poisons act on biochemical reactions or processes.
p.5
Role of Biochemistry in Health Sciences
How are biochemical approaches used in microbiology?
Many workers in microbiology employ biochemical approaches almost exclusively.
p.2
Role of Biochemistry in Health Sciences
How does biochemistry contribute to health sciences?
By providing insights into the molecular mechanisms of diseases and the development of new treatments.
p.58
Major Elements of the Human Body
What is the major function of the Golgi apparatus?
Intracellular sorting of proteins; glycosylation reactions; sulfation reactions.
p.34
Common Chemical Reactions in Living Organisms
What is the process of nucleophilic substitution reaction?
A nucleophile (A:) replaces a leaving group (X:) in a molecule (B‒X) to form a new compound (A‒B).
p.11
Role of Biochemistry in Health Sciences
What is the purpose of measuring blood carcinoembryonic antigen (CEA) in certain patients who have been treated for colon cancer?
To assist in assessing the responses of diseases to therapy.
p.44
Common Chemical Reactions in Living Organisms
What is hydrolysis?
The cleavage of a covalent bond by water.
p.18
Important Functional Groups in Biomolecules
Name the frequently encountered and important functional groups in organic biomolecules.
Hydroxyl, Aldehyde, Ketone, Carboxyl, Ester, Amino, Amido, Sulfhydryl, Alkenyl.
p.21
Major Organic Biomolecules of the Human Body
Where is the ketone functional group found in biomolecules?
In carbohydrates (ketoses) like D-Fructose.
p.57
Experimental Approach in Biochemistry
What is the applicability of the described procedure for subcellular fractionation?
It is applicable in general to most organs and cells.
p.44
Common Chemical Reactions in Living Organisms
How is the digestion of proteins in the stomach catalyzed?
In acid-catalyzed reactions.
p.54
Subcellular Fractionation and Its Importance
What is the speed and duration of the third centrifugation step in the classic differential centrifugation method?
105,000 g for 60 minutes.
p.69
Experimental Approach in Biochemistry
What preparations were developed to remove complications experienced at the level of the whole animal?
Simpler in vitro preparations.
p.17
Major Elements of the Human Body
What is the normal chemical composition of protein in a 65-kg man?
11 kg, which is 17.0% of the body mass.
p.45
Common Chemical Reactions in Living Organisms
What type of reaction involves the substitution of a nucleophile for a leaving group?
Nucleophilic substitution reaction.
p.29
Common Chemical Reactions in Living Organisms
What constitutes metabolism?
The combined catabolic and anabolic processes.
p.68
Subcellular Fractionation and Its Importance
How are liver slices used in biochemical research?
Liver slices have been especially used; however, they tend to deteriorate within a few hours.
p.25
Important Functional Groups in Biomolecules
What is the significance of the amino functional group?
It is polar and participates in H-bond formation. It is weakly basic and bears a positive charge when it accepts a proton.
p.24
Important Functional Groups in Biomolecules
What is the significance of the Ester functional group?
It is polar and participates in H-bond formation.
p.10
Role of Biochemistry in Health Sciences
What is the role of biochemical investigations in relation to diseases?
To reveal the fundamental causes and mechanisms of diseases.
p.44
Common Chemical Reactions in Living Organisms
What type of reactions are usually involved in hydrolysis?
Nucleophilic substitution either at a saturated carbon or a carbonyl carbon.
p.33
Common Chemical Reactions in Living Organisms
What is a nucleophile?
A species that is attracted to an electrophile and substitutes one atom or group for another.
p.9
Role of Biochemistry in Health Sciences
What are the major causes of diseases related to hormonal imbalances?
Hormonal deficiencies and excesses.
p.9
Role of Biochemistry in Health Sciences
How do the major causes of diseases influence the body?
By influencing various biochemical mechanisms in the cell or in the body.
p.10
Role of Biochemistry in Health Sciences
How do biochemical investigations assist in the diagnosis of specific diseases?
By using specific biomarkers or enzymes for diagnosis.
p.15
Major Organic Biomolecules of the Human Body
Do lower organisms have the same building blocks for complex biomolecules as higher organisms?
In certain cases, the building blocks may differ.
p.15
Major Organic Biomolecules of the Human Body
What are some examples of building blocks found in lower organisms?
Other polysaccharides and lipids.
p.40
Common Chemical Reactions in Living Organisms
What are the two simple rules to determine whether a molecule has been oxidized or reduced?
Oxidation occurs if a molecule gains oxygen or loses hydrogen. Reduction occurs if a molecule loses oxygen or gains hydrogen.
p.2
Definition, Aims, and Scope of Biochemistry
What are the aims of biochemistry?
To understand the structure and function of biomolecules, and their role in the processes of life.
p.2
Important Functional Groups in Biomolecules
What are the important functional groups in biomolecules?
Hydroxyl, carbonyl, carboxyl, amino, and phosphate groups.
p.57
Experimental Approach in Biochemistry
How have modifications of centrifugation allowed the isolation of organelles?
By using different homogenization media or protocols.
p.64
Experimental Approach in Biochemistry
How is mass spectrometry used in determining the structures of biomolecules?
It is used to analyze the mass and composition of biomolecules.
p.56
Subcellular Fractionation and Its Importance
What does the microsomal fraction (microsomes) mostly contain?
A mixture of SER, RER, and free ribosomes.
p.46
Developments in the Field of Biochemistry
Who established the cell as the fundamental unit of biologic activity in the 19th century?
Schleiden, Schwann, and other pioneers such as Virchow.
p.29
Common Chemical Reactions in Living Organisms
Define catabolism.
A set of metabolic pathways that breaks down molecules into smaller units, which are either oxidized to release energy, or used in other reactions.
p.54
Subcellular Fractionation and Its Importance
What is the content of the supernatant from each step in the classic differential centrifugation method subjected to?
Centrifugation in the next step.
p.46
Experimental Approach in Biochemistry
What is the significance of the introduction of methods that permit disruption of cells under relatively mild conditions?
It preserved cell function and contributed to the period of unparalleled activity in biochemistry and cell histology.
p.68
Experimental Approach in Biochemistry
Why was the whole animal considered too complex for definitive answers in biochemical research?
It was too complex to permit definitive answers to many questions.
p.68
Experimental Approach in Biochemistry
What preparations were developed to remove complications experienced at the level of the whole animal?
Simpler in vitro preparations.
p.58
Major Elements of the Human Body
What is the major function of the cytoskeleton?
Microfilament, microtubules, intermediate filaments.
p.29
Common Chemical Reactions in Living Organisms
Define anabolism.
A set of metabolic pathways that construct or build molecules from smaller units.
p.10
Role of Biochemistry in Health Sciences
What is an example of using an enzyme for the diagnosis of myocardial infarction?
Use of the enzyme creatine kinase MB (CK-MB) in the diagnosis of myocardial infarction (heart attack).
p.17
Major Elements of the Human Body
Which components make up the chief components of the human body?
Protein, fat, carbohydrate, water, and minerals.
p.58
Experimental Approach in Biochemistry
How are modifications of the basic approach of subcellular fractionation achieved?
By using different homogenization media or different protocols or methods of centrifugation.
p.2
Common Chemical Reactions in Living Organisms
What are the common chemical reactions in living organisms?
Metabolism, photosynthesis, and cellular respiration.
p.2
Developments in the Field of Biochemistry
What developments led to significant progress in biochemistry?
Advances in technology, such as DNA sequencing and structural biology techniques.
p.2
Experimental Approach in Biochemistry
What are the major components of the experimental approach in biochemistry?
Isolation, purification, and characterization of biomolecules and enzymes.
p.2
Major Organic Biomolecules of the Human Body
Name the major organic biomolecules of the human body.
Carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, and nucleic acids.
