What does 'Philia' indicate in white cell counts?
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Too many white cells.
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What does 'Philia' indicate in white cell counts?
Too many white cells.
Where does haematopoiesis occur after birth?
Primarily in the bone marrow (medullary cavity).
What percentage of body weight does blood constitute?
8%.
How many polypeptide globulin chains does globin consist of?
4 chains (2 alpha and 2 beta).
What are some causes of monocytosis?
Infection (TB), inflammation, malignancy.
What are the two main types of stem cells involved in haematopoiesis?
Myeloid Stem Cells and Lymphoid Stem Cells.
How many molecules of oxygen can one hemoglobin molecule transport?
4 molecules.
What is the primary composition of plasma?
Mostly water (90%).
What protective functions does blood serve?
Preventing blood loss through clotting and preventing infection.
How does the membrane of aging erythrocytes change?
It becomes less flexible.
Which organs remove dying erythrocytes?
Spleen and liver.
What physiological conditions require increased production of specific blood cells?
High altitude hypoxia (relative polycythemia), bacterial infection (neutrophilia), and parasitic infection (eosinophilia).
What do Pluripotent Stem Cells need to direct their differentiation?
Certain growth factors.
Name an example of a Haematopoietic Growth Factor.
Erythropoietin (EPO).
What are some causes of neutrophilia?
Infection (bacterial, fungal), trauma, infarction, inflammation, malignancy, myeloproliferative disease, physiological factors.
What are the general functions of Haematopoietic Growth Factors?
Control growth and differentiation, stimulate cell maturation, suppress apoptosis, and affect the function of mature, non-dividing cells.
What is evaluated concerning platelets in a blood smear?
Number, size, and distribution.
What percentage of the body's iron is stored in hemoglobin?
65%.
What causes basophilia?
Myeloproliferative disease, inflammation (acute hypersensitivity, IBD).
What is the Embden-Meyerhof pathway?
A pathway where glucose is metabolized to produce ATP.
What are the main ions found in plasma?
Na+, K+, Ca2+, Mg2+, Cl-, HCO3-
What is the primary function of neutrophils?
To fight bacterial infections and some cancers.
Where is erythropoietin produced?
Primarily by the peri-tubular interstitial cells of the kidneys.
What does 'Penia' indicate in white cell counts?
Too few white cells.
What are monocytes in blood referred to as when they enter tissues?
Macrophages.
What is the purpose of assessing RBCs in a blood smear?
To evaluate size, color, and shape.
What is assessed regarding WBCs in a blood smear?
Number and types.
What areas of the body are primarily involved in postnatal haematopoiesis?
The axial skeleton (pelvis and spine) and long bones (femur and humerus).
What happens to bilirubin after it is formed?
It is conjugated in the liver and excreted in bile, then in feces.
What are some causes of lymphopenia?
Inflammation, lymphoma, renal failure, drugs, congenital conditions.
What does blood distribute in the body?
Oxygen, metabolic waste, and hormones.
What are the stages of erythropoiesis?
Pluripotent stem cells → Pronormoblast → Normoblasts → Reticulocytes → Mature erythrocytes.
How does blood help in regulation?
By regulating temperature, pH, and fluid volume.
What vitamins are necessary for erythropoiesis?
C, E, B6, thiamine, riboflavin, pantothenic acid
When does erythropoietin production increase?
When the body is anemic, hemoglobin isn't releasing oxygen normally, atmospheric oxygen levels are low, or there is damage to renal circulation.
When does erythropoietin production decrease?
When tissue oxygenation is normal.
What is the size of red blood cells comparable to?
A small lymphocyte.
What can cause neutropenia?
Infection (viral), certain drugs, autoimmune diseases, alcohol, congenital conditions.
What is the primary function of hemoglobin?
To carry O2 to tissues and return CO2 from tissues to the lungs.
How can Haematopoietic Growth Factors affect mature cells?
They can affect the function of mature, non-dividing cells.
Why do red blood cells (RBCs) generate energy via anaerobic pathways?
Because they do not have mitochondria.
What is the first stage in the erythroid lineage?
Proerythroblast.
What hormones regulates erythropoiesis?
Erythropoietin, androgens, thyroxine, IL-3, GM-CSF
What are Pluripotent Stem Cells capable of?
Becoming any type of cell.
What occurs to ATP levels in erythrocytes as they age?
ATP levels decline.
What are common causes of eosinophilia?
Allergy, infection (helminths, viral), skin disease, connective tissue disease, malignancy, drugs.
What abnormalities can be identified in a blood smear?
Parasites, abnormal cells (e.g., sickle cells, infected cells, schistocytes, blasts, atypical cells).
What can cause lymphocytosis?
Infection (viral), lymphoproliferative disease, post-splenectomy.
What forms the 'Buffy Coat' in a centrifuged blood sample?
White blood cells (leukocytes) and platelets.
What is the average blood volume in adult men?
5.5 liters.
What are the three types of granulocytes?
Neutrophils, eosinophils, and basophils.
What is the significance of riboflavin in erythropoiesis?
It is involved in energy production and metabolism.
What is the average lifespan of an erythrocyte?
120 days.
What happens to glycolysis in erythrocytes beyond 100 days?
Glycolysis slows down.
What is Thrombopoietin (TPO) associated with?
The regulation of platelet production.
Where does haematopoiesis occur during fetal life?
In the yolk sac, liver, spleen, and bone marrow.
What can lead to eosinopenia?
Acute inflammation, drugs (steroids, catecholamines).
How is iron stored in the bone marrow?
As ferritin.
What is protoporphyrin metabolized into?
Bilirubin.
What is the most common adult hemoglobin molecule?
Hb 'A'.
What is a key characteristic of stem cells?
They are self-renewing.
Why is iron in the ferric form (Fe3+) considered useless for oxygen binding?
Because it does not bind oxygen, leading to oxidative stress.
What is serum?
The fluid, noncellular portion of blood that remains after coagulation.
What are the three main functions of blood?
Distribution, regulation, and protection.
What is erythropoiesis?
The process of red blood cell formation.
How are defective stem cell lineages sometimes treated?
With total body irradiation followed by a bone marrow transplant.
What is the role of GM-CSF in erythropoiesis?
It stimulates the production of granulocytes and macrophages.
What is pantothenic acid's role in erythropoiesis?
It is involved in the synthesis of coenzyme A, important for metabolism.
What is the shape of most red blood cells (RBCs)?
Round with a central pallor.
What is haematopoiesis?
The formation of cells in the blood from pluripotent stem cells.
What is the function of Colony Stimulating Factors (CSFs)?
They direct the differentiation of stem cells.
What occurs during CO2 unloading in the lungs regarding the oxygen dissociation curve?
The curve shifts to the left, increasing O2 uptake.
Where does haematopoiesis begin?
In the bone marrow.
What is contained in the center of each heme molecule?
1 iron atom.
What do myeloblasts develop into in the granulocytic lineage?
Neutrophils, Eosinophils, and Basophils.
What do monoblasts develop into?
Macrophages.
What happens to reticulocytes before they mature?
They circulate in peripheral blood for 1-2 days before maturing in the spleen.
Which vitamins are necessary for normal DNA synthesis?
Vitamin B12, folate
What is the oxygen saturation range for arterial and venous blood?
95% Saturation (Arterial Blood) to 70% Saturation (Venous Blood).
What does P50 represent in the context of hemoglobin?
The partial pressure of O2 at which hemoglobin is 50% saturated with O2 (approximately 26 mmHg).
What happens to the oxygen dissociation curve when it shifts to the right?
O2 is given up more readily to the tissues.
What are the main constituents of hemoglobin?
Globin protein bound to the heme pigment.
What can resume extramedullary haematopoietic roles in times of need?
The remaining fatty marrow, liver, and spleen.
What percentage of total blood volume do red blood cells (erythrocytes) normally constitute?
Normally 45% +/- of the total blood volume.
What is the normal pH range of blood?
Between 7.35 and 7.45.
What are the main proteins found in plasma?
Albumin, globulin, and fibrinogen.
What is produced from megakaryoblasts?
Megakaryocytes and then Platelets.
What can result from defective haematopoietic stem cell lines?
Leukemias and Lymphomas.
What characterizes the presence of blasts and reticulocytes in peripheral blood?
It indicates increased erythropoiesis.
What are platelets responsible for?
Clotting.
What is the significance of reticulocytes in a normal blood smear?
Less than 1% of RBCs are reticulocytes in a normal smear.
What happens to iron from dying erythrocytes?
It is reused and transported back to the bone marrow bound to transferrin.
What type of stem cells do all blood cells start as?
Haematopoietic Stem Cells.
What type of tissue is blood classified as?
A special type of connective tissue.
What is the purpose of the Pentose Phosphate Pathway in RBCs?
To produce NADPH, which is used by methaemoglobin reductase to maintain iron in ferrous form (Fe2+).
What happens to hemoglobin in the lungs during oxygen loading?
It binds to iron molecules and becomes oxyhemoglobin, assuming a new 3D shape and turning ruby red.
What is the average blood volume in adult women?
5 liters.
How does CO2 transport occur in hemoglobin?
CO2 binds to globin's amino acids rather than on the heme group.
How many blood cells can one stem cell produce after 20 divisions?
10,000,000 blood cells.
What is the form of hemoglobin after oxygen unloading in tissues?
Deoxyhemoglobin, which resumes its former 2D shape and becomes dark red.
What role do lymphocytes play in the immune response?
Responsible for innate immune response, including T-cells and B-cells.
What is the importance of thyroxine in erythropoiesis?
It regulates metabolism and influences erythropoiesis.
What are the requirements for effective erythropoiesis?
Metals, vitamins, amino acids, and hormones.
Granulocytes found in blood
Neutrophils, Eosinophils, Basophils
Agranulocytes found in blood
Lymphocytes, monocytes
Eosinophil appearance in standard blood smears
Nucleus (generally 2 lobed), bright red-orange granules
Neutrophil appearance in standard blood smears
Nuclear lobes, increase with age, pale lilac granules
Basophil appearance in standard blood smears
Nucleus generally 2 lobed, heavy and dense dark purple granules make nucleus difficult to see
Monocyte appearance in standard blood smears
Largest leukocyte with an indented or horseshoe shaped nucleus
Lymphocyte appearance in standard blood smears
Spherical cells with single large nucleus occupying most of cell volume. Stains purple and seen in large (NK) and small (B and T cell) variants
