What are monomers?
Monomers are the basic building blocks of polymers.
What are polymers?
Polymers are large molecules made up of repeating monomer units.
p.2
Carbohydrates: Structure and Function
What is the primary function of carbohydrates?
Carbohydrates serve as a primary energy source and structural components.
p.2
Lipids: Types and Functions
What are lipids primarily used for?
Lipids are used for energy storage, insulation, and making up cell membranes.
p.73
Proteins: Structure and Function
What type of bond is formed when a dipeptide is created?
A covalent bond known as a peptide bond.
p.73
Hydrolysis and Condensation Reactions
What is removed during the formation of a dipeptide?
A hydroxyl group from the carboxyl end of one amino acid and a hydrogen from the amino group of another amino acid.
p.9
Hydrolysis and Condensation Reactions
What is the concept of condensation reactions?
Condensation reactions involve the joining of monomers to form polymers, releasing water as a byproduct.
p.109
Enzyme Function and Mechanism
What happens when a substrate attaches to the active site of an enzyme?
It induces a conformational change in the enzyme's active site.
What are polymers?
Molecules that consist of multiple monomers.
p.55
Lipids: Types and Functions
Where are unsaturated fats primarily found?
Mostly in plant oils and fish fats.
p.106
Enzyme Function and Mechanism
What is the Lock and Key model in enzyme action?
It suggests that enzymes and substrates fit together perfectly, like a key in a lock.
p.33
Carbohydrates: Structure and Function
How does the structure of glycogen compare to amylopectin?
Glycogen is more branched than amylopectin.
p.124
Nucleic Acids: DNA and RNA Structure
Where is the nitrogenous base attached in a nucleotide?
To the 1st carbon of the pentose sugar.
p.115
Enzyme Function and Mechanism
How does temperature affect enzyme catalysis?
Temperature can increase the rate of enzyme activity up to an optimal point, beyond which the enzyme may denature.
p.75
Hydrolysis and Condensation Reactions
What happens to the peptide bond during hydrolysis of a dipeptide?
The peptide bond is broken down.
p.100
Enzyme Function and Mechanism
Can enzymes catalyze reversible reactions?
Yes, enzymes can catalyze both reversible and irreversible reactions.
p.122
Nucleic Acids: DNA and RNA Structure
Which nitrogenous bases are classified as pyrimidines?
Cytosine (C), Uracil (U), and Thymine (T).
What are macromolecules?
Polymers that are key components of every living cell.
p.7
Hydrolysis and Condensation Reactions
What is hydrolysis in relation to dehydration?
It is essentially the reverse of the dehydration reaction.
p.110
Enzyme Function and Mechanism
What occurs after the enzyme binds to the substrate?
A slight change in the shape of the enzyme is induced.
p.55
Lipids: Types and Functions
What is the main difference between saturated and unsaturated fatty acids?
Saturated fatty acids have no double bonds, while unsaturated fatty acids contain one or more double bonds.
p.106
Enzyme Function and Mechanism
What is a key characteristic of the Lock and Key model?
It emphasizes a rigid structure where the enzyme's active site is complementary to the substrate.
p.17
Carbohydrates: Structure and Function
What defines an aldose sugar?
The carbonyl group is located at the end of the carbon chain.
p.88
Protein Structure Levels: Primary to Quaternary
What characterizes the primary structure of a protein?
The sequence of amino acids in a polypeptide chain.
p.42
Carbohydrates: Structure and Function
What is the primary function of carbohydrates?
Carbohydrates serve as a primary energy source and structural components.
p.14
Carbohydrates: Structure and Function
What is the basic structure of monosaccharides?
They consist of a single sugar unit, typically with a formula of (CH2O)n.
p.44
Tests for Biological Molecules
What happens when ethanol is diluted in the emulsion test?
It falls out of solution, resulting in a cloudy white emulsion.
p.87
Protein Structure Levels: Primary to Quaternary
What does the quaternary structure of a protein refer to?
A single protein formed when two or more polypeptide chains join.
p.111
Enzyme Function and Mechanism
What are the two hypotheses of enzyme action that can be compared?
The induced fit model and the lock and key hypothesis.
p.88
Protein Structure Levels: Primary to Quaternary
What is the quaternary structure of a protein?
The assembly of multiple polypeptide chains into a single functional unit.
p.79
Protein Structure Levels: Primary to Quaternary
What does the hierarchical organization of protein structure refer to?
The arrangement of protein structure from primary to quaternary levels.
p.42
Enzyme Function and Mechanism
What are enzymes?
Enzymes are proteins that catalyze biochemical reactions.
p.124
Nucleic Acids: DNA and RNA Structure
What are the three components of a nucleotide?
Nitrogenous base, pentose sugar, and phosphate group.
p.129
Nucleic Acids: DNA and RNA Structure
What is the arrangement of the two polynucleotide chains in DNA?
They are arranged in opposite directions (antiparallel).
p.110
Enzyme Function and Mechanism
What happens when an enzyme collides with a substrate molecule?
It forms an enzyme-substrate complex.
p.14
Carbohydrates: Structure and Function
What is a disaccharide?
A carbohydrate made up of two sugar units.
p.13
Carbohydrates: Structure and Function
What are the three types of carbohydrates mentioned?
Monosaccharides, disaccharides, and polysaccharides.
p.127
Nucleic Acids: DNA and RNA Structure
What forms the backbone of a polynucleotide?
Repeating sugar-phosphate units.
p.22
Carbohydrates: Structure and Function
What are the characteristics of disaccharides?
Sweet, soluble in water, can crystallize, and are white/colorless.
p.118
Nucleic Acids: DNA and RNA Structure
What is the basic structure of DNA?
DNA is a polynucleotide, which is a polymer of nucleotides.
p.81
Protein Structure Levels: Primary to Quaternary
What causes the secondary structure of proteins to coil or fold?
The formation of hydrogen bonds between the backbones of amino acids.
p.111
Enzyme Function and Mechanism
What is the role of the enzyme in the induced fit model?
To carry out its catalytic function.
p.51
Lipids: Types and Functions
What is the physical state of saturated fatty acids at room temperature?
They are solid at room temperature.
p.100
Enzyme Function and Mechanism
What is the specificity of enzymes?
Enzymes are specific to their substrate.
p.71
Tests for Biological Molecules
What does the formation of a violet colored complex indicate in the Biuret test?
A positive test for proteins.
p.42
Lipids: Types and Functions
What are lipids primarily used for?
Lipids are used for energy storage, insulation, and making up cell membranes.
p.14
Carbohydrates: Structure and Function
What is the basic structure of disaccharides?
They are formed by the combination of two monosaccharides through a glycosidic bond.
What is a polymer?
A polymer is a large molecule made up of repeating monomer units.
p.2
Enzyme Function and Mechanism
What are enzymes?
Enzymes are proteins that catalyze biochemical reactions.
p.67
Proteins: Structure and Function
What does it mean for amino acids to be amphoteric?
They have both acidic and basic properties.
p.113
Enzyme Function and Mechanism
What is the main characteristic of the active site in the Lock and Key model?
The active site is not flexible and is exactly complementary to the substrate.
p.59
Lipids: Types and Functions
How are fats formed?
Through 3 condensation reactions, also known as esterification.
p.31
Carbohydrates: Structure and Function
What type of glycosidic bond is found in amylopectin?
α-1,4 glycosidic bond and α-1,6 glycosidic bond.
p.112
Enzyme Function and Mechanism
How do the lock and key hypothesis and the induced fit model differ?
The lock and key hypothesis assumes a rigid fit, while the induced fit model allows for flexibility and adaptation of the enzyme's active site.
p.94
Enzyme Function and Mechanism
What is the induced fit model of enzyme action?
The model where the enzyme changes shape to fit the substrate upon binding.
p.109
Enzyme Function and Mechanism
What is the relationship between the active site of an enzyme and its substrate?
The active site is not exactly complementary to the substrate.
p.114
Enzyme Function and Mechanism
Why are the products separate from the enzyme at the end of a reaction?
Products are not complementary with the active site of the enzyme.
p.101
Enzyme Function and Mechanism
What determines the specificity of an enzyme?
The complementary shape of the active site and the substrate.
p.4
Biological Molecules Overview
What are the four major types of biological macromolecules?
Proteins, Carbohydrates, Lipids, and Nucleic acids.
p.85
Protein Structure Levels: Primary to Quaternary
What is the tertiary structure of a protein?
The overall three-dimensional shape of a protein formed by the folding of its polypeptide chains.
p.106
Enzyme Function and Mechanism
How does the Induced Fit model differ from the Lock and Key model?
The Induced Fit model proposes that the enzyme changes shape to better fit the substrate upon binding.
p.111
Enzyme Function and Mechanism
What happens to the active site in the induced fit model?
The active site changes shape to become fully complementary with the substrate.
p.68
Proteins: Structure and Function
What differentiates the 20 types of amino acids?
They differ in their side chain (R group).
p.115
Enzyme Function and Mechanism
What role does enzyme concentration play in catalysis?
Higher enzyme concentration typically increases the reaction rate, provided there is enough substrate available.
p.56
Lipids: Types and Functions
What are non-essential fatty acids?
Fatty acids that can be synthesized in the body, such as stearic acid.
p.2
Proteins: Structure and Function
What role do proteins play in biological systems?
Proteins function as enzymes, structural components, and signaling molecules.
p.29
Carbohydrates: Structure and Function
What is the structure of amylose?
It is helical and forms an unbranched chain of α-glucose.
p.59
Lipids: Types and Functions
What are triglycerides composed of?
3 fatty acids and 1 glycerol backbone.
p.128
Nucleic Acids: DNA and RNA Structure
What is the structure of DNA according to the Watson & Crick model?
It consists of two polynucleotide chains twisted to form a double helix.
p.92
Proteins: Structure and Function
What happens to protein when it is heated or exposed to extreme pH changes?
The bonds are broken, causing it to uncoil and change its conformation.
p.80
Proteins: Structure and Function
What is sickle cell anemia?
A genetic disorder that affects the shape of red blood cells.
p.11
Lipids: Types and Functions
What are lipids primarily used for?
Lipids are used for energy storage, insulation, and making up cell membranes.
p.41
Monomers and Polymers
What is the monomer for the polysaccharide mentioned in (a)?
The specific monomer is not provided in the text.
p.33
Carbohydrates: Structure and Function
What is the primary function of glycogen in animals?
Energy storage in the liver and muscle.
p.103
Enzyme Function and Mechanism
What is the role of the active site in an enzyme?
The active site of the enzyme is exactly complementary to the substrate.
p.119
Nucleic Acids: DNA and RNA Structure
What is the primary focus when studying DNA?
Explaining the structure of DNA and identifying structural components from diagrams.
p.110
Enzyme Function and Mechanism
What are the two hypotheses of enzyme action that can be compared?
Induced fit model and lock and key hypothesis.
p.42
Monomers and Polymers
What are polymers?
Polymers are large molecules formed by the linking of multiple monomers.
p.115
Enzyme Function and Mechanism
What is the effect of pH on enzyme activity?
Each enzyme has an optimal pH range; deviations can reduce activity or denature the enzyme.
p.23
Hydrolysis and Condensation Reactions
What is the condensation process?
A chemical reaction where two molecules combine to form a larger molecule, releasing water.
p.29
Carbohydrates: Structure and Function
What is a glycosidic bond?
A bond formed between monosaccharides during polymerization.
p.58
Lipids: Types and Functions
How do the hydrophilic and hydrophobic parts of phospholipids relate to their function?
The hydrophilic (water-attracting) phosphate head interacts with water, while the hydrophobic (water-repelling) fatty acid tails repel water, allowing phospholipids to form bilayers in cell membranes.
p.47
Lipids: Types and Functions
What is the difference between saturated and unsaturated fatty acids?
Saturated fatty acids have no double bonds between carbon atoms, while unsaturated fatty acids have one or more double bonds.
p.21
Carbohydrates: Structure and Function
What role do monosaccharides play in relation to disaccharides and polysaccharides?
They are the basic building units or monomers.
p.118
Nucleic Acids: DNA and RNA Structure
Which elements primarily compose DNA?
Carbon (C), Hydrogen (H), Oxygen (O), Phosphorus (P), and Nitrogen (N).
p.52
Lipids: Types and Functions
What are saturated fatty acids?
Fats that consist of saturated fatty acids, commonly known as saturated fat.
p.23
Carbohydrates: Structure and Function
What are monosaccharides?
The simplest form of carbohydrates, consisting of single sugar molecules.
p.21
Carbohydrates: Structure and Function
What are the three types of carbohydrates mentioned?
Monosaccharides, disaccharides, and polysaccharides.
p.54
Lipids: Types and Functions
Why can't unsaturated fatty acids be closely packed?
Due to the bending caused by double bonds.
p.14
Carbohydrates: Structure and Function
What is the basic structure of polysaccharides?
They are long chains of monosaccharide units linked by glycosidic bonds.
p.44
Tests for Biological Molecules
What indicates a positive result in the emulsion test?
A color change to cloudy white.
p.84
Protein Structure Levels: Primary to Quaternary
What is the tertiary structure of a protein?
The coiling of a polypeptide chain into a globular shape maintained by bonds and interactions among R groups.
p.65
Proteins: Structure and Function
What is the general structure of an amino acid?
An amino acid consists of a central carbon atom, an amino group, a carboxyl group, a hydrogen atom, and a variable R group.
p.60
Lipids: Types and Functions
What are the components that form a triglyceride?
1 glycerol and 3 fatty acids.
p.9
Hydrolysis and Condensation Reactions
How do condensation and hydrolysis reactions relate to polymers?
Condensation reactions build polymers, while hydrolysis reactions break them down.
p.103
Enzyme Function and Mechanism
What is the relationship between a substrate and an enzyme in the lock and key model?
The substrate is the 'key' that fits exactly into the 'lock' (enzyme).
p.101
Enzyme Function and Mechanism
What is the consequence of a changed active site on enzyme activity?
The substrate can no longer fit into the active site, inhibiting enzyme function.
p.17
Carbohydrates: Structure and Function
What is a carbonyl group?
A functional group with the structure C=O.
p.88
Protein Structure Levels: Primary to Quaternary
What are the four levels of protein structure?
Primary, Secondary, Tertiary, and Quaternary.
p.69
Proteins: Structure and Function
What are the four groups of amino acids based on their properties?
Non-polar, Basic, Polar, Acidic.
p.40
Tests for Biological Molecules
What is Benedict's reagent composed of?
An alkaline solution of copper (II) sulfate.
p.8
Hydrolysis and Condensation Reactions
What is a condensation reaction?
A reaction that forms polymers by joining monomers and releasing water.
p.36
Carbohydrates: Structure and Function
What type of glucose polymerization forms starch or glycogen?
Polymerization of α-glucose.
p.122
Nucleic Acids: DNA and RNA Structure
Which nitrogenous bases are classified as purines?
Adenine (A) and Guanine (G).
p.102
Enzyme Function and Mechanism
What is the Induced Fit Model in enzyme action?
A widely accepted hypothesis stating that the enzyme's active site changes shape to better fit the substrate upon binding.
p.83
Protein Structure Levels: Primary to Quaternary
What is the structure of a β-pleated sheet?
It has a zig-zag pattern.
p.70
Tests for Biological Molecules
How can the Biuret test be interpreted?
By observing the color change in the solution.
p.8
Hydrolysis and Condensation Reactions
How do condensation and hydrolysis reactions relate to polymers?
Condensation forms polymers, while hydrolysis breaks them down.
p.72
Proteins: Structure and Function
What are essential amino acids?
Amino acids that cannot be synthesized in sufficient amounts and must be obtained through food or supplements.
p.130
Nucleic Acids: DNA and RNA Structure
Which bases pair together in DNA?
Adenine with Thymine, and Cytosine with Guanine.
p.93
Proteins: Structure and Function
What effect does heat or radiation have on protein structure?
Increased kinetic energy causes protein atoms to vibrate, breaking H & ionic bonds and van der Waals interactions.
p.11
Carbohydrates: Structure and Function
What is the primary function of carbohydrates?
Carbohydrates serve as a primary energy source and structural components.
p.66
Proteins: Structure and Function
What are the four components attached to the central carbon of an amino acid?
A hydrogen atom, a carboxyl group, an amino group, and a variable R group (or side chain).
p.67
Proteins: Structure and Function
What is the general structure of an amino acid?
It consists of a central carbon (C), an amino group (NH2), a carboxyl group (COOH), a hydrogen atom (H), and a variable R group.
p.113
Enzyme Function and Mechanism
How does the active site behave in the Induced-Fit model?
The active site is flexible and not exactly complementary to the substrate.
p.108
Enzyme Function and Mechanism
What is the Induced Fit Model in enzyme action?
It describes how the attachment of substrates induces a conformational change in the active site of the enzyme, allowing it to fit the substrate.
p.89
Proteins: Structure and Function
What are the three classifications of proteins based on structure?
Fibrous, globular, and conjugated.
p.9
Hydrolysis and Condensation Reactions
What is hydrolysis?
Hydrolysis is the process of breaking down polymers into monomers by adding water.
p.110
Enzyme Function and Mechanism
What is the active site of an enzyme like in relation to the substrate?
It is not fully complementary to the shape of the substrate.
p.25
Carbohydrates: Structure and Function
What is shown in the structure of glucose when all carbon atoms are clearly depicted?
All carbon atoms are clearly shown.
p.51
Lipids: Types and Functions
Why can saturated fatty acids be closely packed?
Because of their straight chain structure.
p.103
Enzyme Function and Mechanism
What are the two hypotheses of enzyme action that can be compared and evaluated?
The induced fit model and the lock and key model.
p.98
Enzyme Function and Mechanism
How do enzymes lower the activation energy of a reaction?
By facilitating the breaking and formation of bonds in the substrate.
p.70
Tests for Biological Molecules
What indicates a negative result in the Biuret test?
No color change or a blue color.
p.81
Protein Structure Levels: Primary to Quaternary
What are the two types of secondary structures in proteins?
Alpha helix and beta pleated sheet.
p.111
Enzyme Function and Mechanism
What occurs after the product is formed in the induced fit model?
The enzyme changes back to its original conformation.
p.8
Hydrolysis and Condensation Reactions
What is a hydrolysis reaction?
A reaction that breaks down polymers into monomers by adding water.
p.17
Carbohydrates: Structure and Function
What defines a ketose sugar?
The carbonyl group is located in the middle of the carbon chain.
p.98
Enzyme Function and Mechanism
What is the activation energy?
The minimum amount of energy required by a reactant (substrate) to start a chemical reaction.
p.94
Enzyme Function and Mechanism
What is activation energy in the context of energy level diagrams?
The minimum energy required for a reaction to occur.
p.36
Carbohydrates: Structure and Function
What is the main structural difference between starch/glycogen and cellulose?
Starch and glycogen are formed from α-glucose, while cellulose is formed from β-glucose.
p.123
Nucleic Acids: DNA and RNA Structure
What is the role of nitrogenous bases in nucleic acids?
They form the genetic code by pairing with complementary bases.
p.87
Protein Structure Levels: Primary to Quaternary
Give an example of a protein with a quaternary structure.
Hemoglobin, which consists of 4 polypeptide chains (two α chains and two β chains).
p.104
Enzyme Function and Mechanism
What is the main premise of the lock and key model?
The active site of the enzyme is specifically shaped to fit the substrate.
p.84
Protein Structure Levels: Primary to Quaternary
What maintains the globular shape of a polypeptide chain?
Four types of interactions between R groups.
p.120
Nucleic Acids: DNA and RNA Structure
What are the three components of a nucleotide?
Pentose sugar, phosphate group, and nitrogenous base.
p.78
Protein Structure Levels: Primary to Quaternary
What does the primary structure of a protein refer to?
The linear sequence of amino acids joined by peptide bonds within a polypeptide chain.
p.16
Monomers and Polymers
What is an aldose?
A type of monosaccharide with an aldehyde functional group.
p.116
Monomers and Polymers
What are monomers?
Monomers are the basic building blocks of polymers.
p.60
Hydrolysis and Condensation Reactions
What is produced during the formation of triglycerides?
3 molecules of water (H2O).
p.119
Nucleic Acids: DNA and RNA Structure
What are the two types of nucleic acids?
Deoxyribonucleic Acid (DNA) and Ribonucleic Acid (RNA).
p.124
Nucleic Acids: DNA and RNA Structure
What distinguishes a DNA nucleotide from an RNA nucleotide?
The type of pentose sugar: deoxyribose in DNA and ribose in RNA.
p.58
Lipids: Types and Functions
What is the primary structure of phospholipids?
Phospholipids consist of a glycerol backbone, two fatty acid tails, and a phosphate group.
p.44
Tests for Biological Molecules
What is the purpose of the emulsion test?
To detect the presence of lipids in a solution.
p.123
Nucleic Acids: DNA and RNA Structure
What are the nitrogenous bases found in DNA?
Guanine, Adenine, Thymine, Cytosine.
p.46
Lipids: Types and Functions
What are the two types of fatty acids?
Saturated and Unsaturated.
p.11
Monomers and Polymers
What are monomers?
Monomers are the basic building blocks of polymers.
p.88
Protein Structure Levels: Primary to Quaternary
What defines the tertiary structure of a protein?
The overall three-dimensional shape formed by the interactions between R groups of amino acids.
p.68
Proteins: Structure and Function
How are amino acids grouped?
Based on the properties of their R group.
p.102
Enzyme Function and Mechanism
How does the Induced Fit Model differ from the Lock and Key Model?
The Induced Fit Model involves a change in the enzyme's shape to accommodate the substrate, while the Lock and Key Model does not.
p.53
Lipids: Types and Functions
What is the main difference between saturated and unsaturated fatty acids?
Saturated fatty acids have no double bonds, while unsaturated fatty acids have one or more double bonds.
p.40
Tests for Biological Molecules
What type of sugars can be tested using Benedict's test?
Reducing and non-reducing sugars.
p.23
Carbohydrates: Structure and Function
What are disaccharides?
Carbohydrates formed by the combination of two monosaccharides.
p.29
Carbohydrates: Structure and Function
Why is amylose considered ideal for storage?
Because it is very compact due to its folded structure.
p.17
Carbohydrates: Structure and Function
How is the numbering of the carbon chain determined in monosaccharides?
It begins with the carbon nearest to the carbonyl group.
p.79
Protein Structure Levels: Primary to Quaternary
What is the significance of the primary structure in proteins?
It determines the protein's overall shape and function.
p.18
Carbohydrates: Structure and Function
What are monosaccharides?
The simplest form of carbohydrates, consisting of single sugar molecules.
p.105
Enzyme Function and Mechanism
What is formed when the substrate binds to the enzyme?
An enzyme-substrate complex is formed.
p.19
Carbohydrates: Structure and Function
Give an example of a triose sugar.
Glyceraldehyde or dihydroxyacetone.
p.11
Proteins: Structure and Function
What role do proteins play in biological systems?
Proteins function as enzymes, structural components, and signaling molecules.
p.41
Carbohydrates: Structure and Function
What is the name of the polysaccharide shown in FIGURE 2?
The specific name of the polysaccharide is not provided in the text.
p.73
Proteins: Structure and Function
How do dipeptides form?
Two amino acids are joined by a condensation process.
p.26
Carbohydrates: Structure and Function
What are the two isomeric forms of glucose based on the position of the OH group at C1?
α-glucose (below the ring plane) and β-glucose (above the ring plane).
p.124
Nucleic Acids: DNA and RNA Structure
Where is the phosphate group attached in a nucleotide?
To the 5th carbon of the pentose sugar.
p.42
Monomers and Polymers
What are monomers?
Monomers are the basic building blocks of polymers.
What is the relationship between monomers and polymers?
Polymers are made up of multiple monomers.
p.13
Carbohydrates: Structure and Function
What elements are carbohydrates composed of?
Carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen atoms.
p.101
Protein Structure Levels: Primary to Quaternary
How does tertiary structure relate to enzyme specificity?
The tertiary structure determines the shape of the active site, which is crucial for substrate binding.
p.14
Carbohydrates: Structure and Function
What are the three main classes of carbohydrates?
Monosaccharides, disaccharides, and polysaccharides.
p.22
Carbohydrates: Structure and Function
How are disaccharides formed?
By joining two monosaccharides through a condensation process (removal of a water molecule).
p.56
Lipids: Types and Functions
What are essential fatty acids?
Fatty acids that cannot be synthesized in the body and must be present in the diet, such as linoleic, linolenic, and arachidonic acids.
p.50
Lipids: Types and Functions
What is the main difference between saturated and unsaturated fatty acids?
Saturated fatty acids have no double bonds, while unsaturated fatty acids have one or more double bonds.
p.33
Carbohydrates: Structure and Function
What type of glucose polymerization forms starch or glycogen?
Polymerization of α-glucose.
p.53
Lipids: Types and Functions
What is a saturated fatty acid?
A fatty acid with no double bonds between carbon atoms, fully saturated with hydrogen.
p.88
Protein Structure Levels: Primary to Quaternary
What is the secondary structure of a protein?
The folding or coiling of the polypeptide chain into alpha-helices or beta-pleated sheets.
p.98
Enzyme Function and Mechanism
What happens when substrates collide with an enzyme?
They bind at the enzyme's active site.
What is a monomer?
A monomer is a small, basic molecular unit that can join together to form polymers.
p.50
Lipids: Types and Functions
What characterizes saturated fatty acids?
They have no double bonds between carbon atoms.
p.55
Lipids: Types and Functions
What are unsaturated fatty acids?
Fats that consist of unsaturated fatty acids, commonly found in plants and fish.
p.50
Lipids: Types and Functions
What characterizes unsaturated fatty acids?
They have double bonds between carbon atoms.
p.51
Lipids: Types and Functions
What is a characteristic of saturated fatty acids regarding hydrogen atoms?
They have the maximum number of hydrogen atoms.
p.99
Enzyme Function and Mechanism
What do enzymes do to the rate of chemical reactions?
They speed up the rate of chemical reactions.
p.60
Lipids: Types and Functions
What is the general structure of triglycerides?
A glycerol backbone with three fatty acid chains.
p.25
Carbohydrates: Structure and Function
What happens to the representation of glucose when carbon atoms are omitted?
The carbon atoms are omitted.
p.70
Tests for Biological Molecules
What is the Biuret test used for?
To test for the presence of proteins.
p.47
Lipids: Types and Functions
What is the chemical structure of glycerol?
A 3C alcohol with 3 OH groups, making it soluble in water.
p.89
Proteins: Structure and Function
What is a key characteristic of fibrous proteins?
They form long parallel filaments or strands.
p.104
Enzyme Function and Mechanism
What does the 'lock and key' model describe in enzyme action?
It describes how the active site of an enzyme is exactly complementary to its substrate.
p.23
Hydrolysis and Condensation Reactions
What is the hydrolysis process?
A chemical reaction where a larger molecule is broken down into smaller molecules by the addition of water.
p.123
Nucleic Acids: DNA and RNA Structure
What are the nitrogenous bases found in RNA?
Guanine, Adenine, Uracil, Cytosine.
p.95
Enzyme Function and Mechanism
What is a biological catalyst?
A substance produced by living cells that speeds up the rate of chemical reactions.
p.44
Tests for Biological Molecules
What is the first step in performing the emulsion test?
Add ethanol to the solution you want to test.
p.87
Protein Structure Levels: Primary to Quaternary
What type of bonds exist in the quaternary structure?
The same as those in the tertiary structure.
p.11
Monomers and Polymers
What are polymers?
Polymers are large molecules formed by the linking of multiple monomers.
p.88
Protein Structure Levels: Primary to Quaternary
Why is the hierarchical organization of protein structure important?
It determines the protein's function and properties.
p.52
Lipids: Types and Functions
What is the key difference between saturated and unsaturated fatty acids?
Saturated fatty acids have no double bonds between carbon atoms, while unsaturated fatty acids have one or more double bonds.
p.63
Monomers and Polymers
What are monomers?
Monomers are the basic building blocks of polymers.
p.59
Hydrolysis and Condensation Reactions
What is removed during the formation of triglycerides?
Water is removed by extracting OH from the carboxyl group of fatty acids and H from the glycerol’s hydroxyl group.
p.45
Lipids: Types and Functions
What are the main components of lipids?
Mainly carbon and hydrogen atoms, with few oxygen atoms.
p.23
Carbohydrates: Structure and Function
What is the basic structure of carbohydrates?
Carbohydrates consist of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen, typically in a ratio of 1:2:1.
p.107
Enzyme Function and Mechanism
What does the Induced Fit model imply about enzyme flexibility?
It implies that enzymes are flexible and can adapt their shape to accommodate substrates.
p.105
Enzyme Function and Mechanism
What occurs within the enzyme-substrate complex?
The substrate reacts, and the product is released.
p.5
Biological Molecules Overview
What role do macromolecules play in transport?
They facilitate transport.
p.14
Carbohydrates: Structure and Function
What is a monosaccharide?
A carbohydrate consisting of one sugar unit.
p.103
Enzyme Function and Mechanism
What is formed when an enzyme and substrate combine?
An enzyme-substrate complex.
p.51
Lipids: Types and Functions
What is the structure of saturated fatty acids?
They have a straight chain structure.
p.68
Proteins: Structure and Function
What is the general structure of an amino acid?
An amino acid consists of an amino group, a carboxyl group, a hydrogen atom, and a variable side chain (R).
p.85
Protein Structure Levels: Primary to Quaternary
What does the hierarchical organization of protein structure include?
It includes primary, secondary, tertiary, and quaternary structures.
p.25
Carbohydrates: Structure and Function
What happens to the representation of glucose when hydrogen atoms are omitted?
The hydrogen atoms are omitted.
p.13
Carbohydrates: Structure and Function
What is the approximate ratio of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen in carbohydrates?
Approximately 1:2:1 (CH₂O)n.
p.85
Protein Structure Levels: Primary to Quaternary
What is the significance of the tertiary structure in proteins?
It determines the protein's function and interaction with other molecules.
p.70
Tests for Biological Molecules
What indicates a positive result in the Biuret test?
A color change to purple.
p.130
Nucleic Acids: DNA and RNA Structure
What holds the two chains of DNA together?
Hydrogen bonds between complementary base pairs.
p.15
Carbohydrates: Structure and Function
What are monosaccharides?
Simple sugars consisting of 1 sugar molecule with 3 to 7 carbon atoms.
p.56
Lipids: Types and Functions
What is the difference between saturated and unsaturated fatty acids?
Saturated fatty acids have no double bonds between carbon atoms, while unsaturated fatty acids have one or more double bonds.
p.82
Protein Structure Levels: Primary to Quaternary
What is the structure of an α-helix?
A helical coil formed by hydrogen bonds.
p.105
Enzyme Function and Mechanism
What happens when an enzyme collides with its substrate molecule?
The substrate binds to the active site of the enzyme.
p.107
Enzyme Function and Mechanism
How does the Induced Fit model differ from the Lock and Key model?
The Induced Fit model suggests that the enzyme changes shape to better fit the substrate upon binding.
p.95
Enzyme Function and Mechanism
What is activation energy?
The energy required to initiate a chemical reaction.
p.98
Enzyme Function and Mechanism
What role do enzymes play in chemical reactions?
They lower the activation energy needed for the reaction to occur.
p.63
Monomers and Polymers
What are polymers?
Polymers are large molecules made up of repeating monomer units.
p.74
Proteins: Structure and Function
What are the two ends of a dipeptide referred to as?
C-terminal and N-terminal.
p.37
Carbohydrates: Structure and Function
What is a glycosidic bond?
A bond formed between monosaccharides during polymerization.
p.121
Nucleic Acids: DNA and RNA Structure
What distinguishes deoxyribose from ribose?
Deoxyribose has one H atom at the 2nd carbon atom, while ribose has one OH group.
p.80
Proteins: Structure and Function
What does it mean when a molecule is described as hydrophobic?
It repels water and does not interact well with it.
p.101
Enzyme Function and Mechanism
What happens to an enzyme when it is denatured by heat or pH changes?
The shape of the active site is changed, preventing the substrate from fitting.
p.75
Hydrolysis and Condensation Reactions
What process hydrolyzes a dipeptide into two amino acids?
Hydrolysis (addition of water).
p.14
Carbohydrates: Structure and Function
What is a polysaccharide?
A carbohydrate composed of many sugar units.
p.21
Carbohydrates: Structure and Function
What is the primary function of monosaccharides?
They serve as an energy source.
p.36
Carbohydrates: Structure and Function
What is a glycosidic bond?
A type of covalent bond that connects carbohydrate molecules through a condensation reaction.
p.46
Lipids: Types and Functions
What are the building blocks of fats?
1 Glycerol and 3 Fatty acids.
p.106
Enzyme Function and Mechanism
What does the Induced Fit model imply about enzyme flexibility?
It implies that enzymes are flexible and can adapt their shape to accommodate the substrate.
p.125
Nucleic Acids: DNA and RNA Structure
Which groups are involved in the formation of a dinucleotide?
The OH group in the phosphate group of one nucleotide and the OH group at the 3rd carbon in the pentose sugar of the other nucleotide.
p.51
Lipids: Types and Functions
What is the main difference between saturated and unsaturated fatty acids?
Saturated fatty acids have no double bonds, while unsaturated fatty acids have one or more double bonds.
p.100
Enzyme Function and Mechanism
When is enzyme activity at its maximum?
At optimum temperature and pH.
p.81
Protein Structure Levels: Primary to Quaternary
What types of bonds are involved in the formation of secondary structures?
Hydrogen bonds between the H of NH groups and the O of C=O groups.
p.33
Carbohydrates: Structure and Function
What type of glucose polymerization forms cellulose?
Polymerization of β-glucose.
p.22
Hydrolysis and Condensation Reactions
How can disaccharides be broken down into monomers?
Through hydrolysis (addition of a water molecule).
p.81
Protein Structure Levels: Primary to Quaternary
What is the primary chain in the context of protein structure?
The linear chain of amino acids.
p.95
Enzyme Function and Mechanism
How do biological catalysts affect chemical reactions?
They speed up the rate of reactions by lowering the activation energy.
p.2
Nucleic Acids: DNA and RNA Structure
What are nucleic acids responsible for?
Nucleic acids store and transmit genetic information.
p.90
Proteins: Structure and Function
What is the primary structure type of globular proteins?
Mostly tertiary/quaternary structure.
p.16
Monomers and Polymers
What is the basic structure of disaccharides?
Two monosaccharides linked together by a glycosidic bond.
What is ATP?
ATP (adenosine triphosphate) is the primary energy carrier in cells.
p.91
Proteins: Structure and Function
What is mucin and where is it found?
A glycoprotein found in saliva that serves as a lubricant.
p.27
Carbohydrates: Structure and Function
What are some examples of polysaccharides?
Starch, glycogen, cellulose, amylose, and amylopectin.
p.100
Enzyme Function and Mechanism
What happens to enzymes after they catalyze a reaction?
They do not change and are reusable.
p.89
Proteins: Structure and Function
What is the primary structure type of fibrous proteins?
Mostly secondary structure.
p.99
Enzyme Function and Mechanism
How do enzymes increase the rate of chemical reactions?
By lowering the activation energy (E A).
p.102
Enzyme Function and Mechanism
What is the Lock and Key Model in enzyme action?
A hypothesis suggesting that the enzyme's active site is a perfect fit for the substrate, like a key fits into a lock.
p.53
Lipids: Types and Functions
What is an unsaturated fatty acid?
A fatty acid that contains one or more double bonds between carbon atoms.
p.67
Proteins: Structure and Function
What are the two functional groups present in amino acids?
Amino group (NH2) and carboxyl group (COOH).
p.115
Enzyme Function and Mechanism
How do inhibitors affect enzyme activity?
Inhibitors can decrease enzyme activity by binding to the enzyme or substrate, preventing the reaction.
p.42
Proteins: Structure and Function
What role do proteins play in biological systems?
Proteins function as enzymes, structural components, and signaling molecules.
p.83
Protein Structure Levels: Primary to Quaternary
What are the properties of a β-pleated sheet?
It provides strength and flexibility.
p.100
Enzyme Function and Mechanism
How fast can one enzyme molecule catalyze reactions?
Thousands or more reactions in a second.
p.112
Enzyme Function and Mechanism
What is the induced fit model of enzyme action?
It proposes that the enzyme's active site changes shape to better fit the substrate upon binding, enhancing the reaction.
p.82
Protein Structure Levels: Primary to Quaternary
How are hydrogen bonds formed in an α-helix?
Between the first amino acid and the fourth amino acid away from it.
p.44
Tests for Biological Molecules
What does a negative result in the emulsion test indicate?
No color change or a clear solution, indicating lipids are absent.
p.28
Carbohydrates: Structure and Function
How do plants store excess glucose?
By converting it into starch for storage in chloroplasts.
p.72
Proteins: Structure and Function
Can you name four essential amino acids?
Isoleucine, leucine, lysine, methionine.
p.37
Carbohydrates: Structure and Function
What type of structure does cellulose provide to plant cells?
A very stable and tough structure that provides support.
p.82
Protein Structure Levels: Primary to Quaternary
What property does the α-helix provide to proteins?
Elasticity, as it can stretch under tension.
p.3
Hydrolysis and Condensation Reactions
What is a condensation reaction?
A condensation reaction is a process where monomers join together, releasing water and forming a polymer.
p.77
Protein Structure Levels: Primary to Quaternary
What are the four levels of protein structure?
Primary, Secondary, Tertiary, and Quaternary.
p.92
Proteins: Structure and Function
Is denaturation of proteins usually reversible?
Usually irreversible, but sometimes renaturation may occur.
p.63
Carbohydrates: Structure and Function
What is the primary function of carbohydrates?
Carbohydrates serve as a primary energy source and structural components.
p.116
Monomers and Polymers
What are polymers?
Polymers are large molecules formed by the linking of many monomers.
p.94
Enzyme Function and Mechanism
How do temperature and pH affect enzyme catalysis?
They can alter enzyme shape and activity, affecting reaction rates.
p.96
Enzyme Function and Mechanism
What is the role of the active site in enzyme function?
It allows the enzyme to bind to its specific substrate.
p.115
Enzyme Function and Mechanism
How does substrate concentration influence enzyme catalysis?
Increasing substrate concentration generally increases the rate of reaction until the enzyme becomes saturated.
p.40
Tests for Biological Molecules
What is the first step in performing Benedict's test?
Add an equal volume of Benedict's reagent to the sample.
p.106
Enzyme Function and Mechanism
What are the implications of the Lock and Key model for enzyme specificity?
It suggests that each enzyme is specific to a particular substrate due to the precise fit.
p.54
Lipids: Types and Functions
What effect does a double bond have on unsaturated fatty acids?
It causes bending in the structure.
p.57
Biological Molecules Overview
What are the building blocks of phospholipids?
1 Glycerol, 2 Fatty acids, and a Phosphate group.
p.89
Proteins: Structure and Function
What is the main function of fibrous proteins?
Mechanical and structural support.
p.92
Proteins: Structure and Function
Why is globular protein considered relatively unstable?
Because it is maintained by weak ionic bonds, hydrogen bonds, and hydrophobic interactions.
p.15
Carbohydrates: Structure and Function
What are the characteristics of monosaccharides?
They are small, sweet, soluble in water, can crystallize, and are white or colorless.
Can you name some biological polymers?
Examples include proteins, nucleic acids, and polysaccharides.
p.49
Lipids: Types and Functions
What is an example of a fatty acid mentioned?
Stearic acid (stearate), C18H36O2.
p.38
Carbohydrates: Structure and Function
What are the two main functions of polysaccharides?
Energy storage and providing structural support.
p.29
Carbohydrates: Structure and Function
What type of glucose polymerization forms cellulose?
Polymerization of β-glucose.
p.12
Carbohydrates: Structure and Function
What are the three types of carbohydrates mentioned?
Monosaccharides, disaccharides, and polysaccharides.
p.49
Lipids: Types and Functions
What are the types of lipids?
Fats, phospholipids, and steroids.
p.76
Proteins: Structure and Function
What is the polypeptide backbone composed of?
A repeated sequence of (-N-C-C-).
What is ATP?
ATP (adenosine triphosphate) is the primary energy carrier in cells.
p.66
Proteins: Structure and Function
What does the R group in an amino acid represent?
A variable side chain that determines the specific properties of the amino acid.
p.107
Enzyme Function and Mechanism
What are the implications of the Lock and Key model for enzyme specificity?
It suggests high specificity, as only substrates that fit the active site can bind.
p.130
Nucleic Acids: DNA and RNA Structure
What are the 5' and 3' ends in DNA structure?
5' to 3' direction indicates the orientation of the DNA strands.
p.80
Protein Structure Levels: Primary to Quaternary
What is the hierarchical organization of protein structure?
It includes primary, secondary, tertiary, and quaternary structures.
p.43
Lipids: Types and Functions
What is the structure of phospholipids?
Phospholipids consist of a glycerol backbone, two fatty acid tails, and a phosphate group, allowing them to form bilayers in cell membranes.
p.90
Proteins: Structure and Function
What are some functions of globular proteins?
Metabolic and chemical processes.
p.12
Carbohydrates: Structure and Function
How can polymerisation of α-glucose form starch or glycogen?
Polymerisation of α-glucose results in long chains that can branch, forming starch or glycogen.
p.20
Carbohydrates: Structure and Function
What are isomers?
Molecules with the same molecular formulas but different arrangements of atoms.
p.90
Proteins: Structure and Function
Give examples of globular proteins.
Enzymes, antibodies, hormones, hemoglobin.
p.13
Carbohydrates: Structure and Function
What does 'n' represent in the carbohydrate formula?
The number of carbon atoms.
p.58
Lipids: Types and Functions
What role do phospholipids play in cell membranes?
Phospholipids form the fundamental structure of cell membranes, creating a barrier that separates the interior of the cell from the external environment.
p.79
Protein Structure Levels: Primary to Quaternary
What is the primary structure of a protein?
The sequence of amino acids in a polypeptide chain.
p.112
Enzyme Function and Mechanism
What is the lock and key hypothesis in enzyme action?
It suggests that the enzyme's active site is exactly shaped to fit a specific substrate, like a key fits into a lock.
p.58
Lipids: Types and Functions
Why are phospholipids considered amphipathic molecules?
Because they have both hydrophilic and hydrophobic regions, allowing them to interact with both water and lipid environments.
p.37
Carbohydrates: Structure and Function
What is the arrangement of straight chains in cellulose?
They are arranged parallel to one another.
p.22
Carbohydrates: Structure and Function
What are some common examples of disaccharides?
Maltose, sucrose, and lactose.
p.37
Carbohydrates: Structure and Function
How are the chains in cellulose linked together?
By hydrogen bonds, forming microfibrils.
p.19
Carbohydrates: Structure and Function
What are the three classes of sugars based on the number of carbon atoms?
Triose (3 C), Pentose (5 C), and Hexose (6 C).
p.102
Enzyme Function and Mechanism
What is the significance of the Induced Fit Model in understanding enzyme action?
It explains how enzymes can be flexible and adapt to different substrates, enhancing their catalytic efficiency.
p.17
Carbohydrates: Structure and Function
What are the classes of monosaccharides based on?
The position of the functional group.
p.31
Carbohydrates: Structure and Function
What is the significance of α-1,6 glycosidic bonds in amylopectin?
They create branching in the structure.
p.43
Tests for Biological Molecules
What is the purpose of the emulsion test?
To detect the presence of lipids in a sample.
Why is water important for biological molecules?
Water is a solvent for biochemical reactions and helps maintain cell structure.
p.16
Monomers and Polymers
What is a ketose?
A type of monosaccharide with a ketone functional group.
Why is water important for biological molecules?
Water is a solvent for biochemical reactions and helps maintain cell structure.
p.72
Proteins: Structure and Function
What are non-essential amino acids?
Amino acids that can be synthesized in the body.
p.108
Enzyme Function and Mechanism
What is the main concept of the Lock and Key Hypothesis?
It posits that the enzyme's active site is specifically shaped to fit a particular substrate without any change in shape.
p.63
Proteins: Structure and Function
What is the role of proteins in biological systems?
Proteins function as enzymes, structural components, and signaling molecules.
p.108
Enzyme Function and Mechanism
What is a key feature of the Induced Fit Model?
It emphasizes the dynamic nature of enzyme-substrate interactions.
p.97
Enzyme Function and Mechanism
What is the purpose of interpreting energy level diagrams in enzyme reactions?
To identify the activation energy.
p.32
Carbohydrates: Structure and Function
What type of glycosidic bonds are found in amylopectin?
α - 1,4 glycosidic bond and α - 1,6 glycosidic bond.
p.27
Carbohydrates: Structure and Function
How are sugar molecules in polysaccharides joined together?
By a condensation process, which involves the removal of water molecules.
p.36
Carbohydrates: Structure and Function
What type of glucose polymerization forms cellulose?
Polymerization of β-glucose.
p.106
Enzyme Function and Mechanism
What are the implications of the Induced Fit model for enzyme activity?
It suggests that enzyme activity can be influenced by the binding of the substrate, allowing for a more dynamic interaction.
p.100
Enzyme Function and Mechanism
What happens to enzymes at extreme temperatures and pH?
They can be denatured or destroyed.
p.107
Enzyme Function and Mechanism
What is the Lock and Key model in enzyme action?
A model suggesting that the enzyme's active site is exactly shaped to fit a specific substrate.
p.52
Lipids: Types and Functions
What are common sources of saturated fats?
Mostly animal fats, such as butter and lard.
p.57
Biological Molecules Overview
What is a major component of the cell membrane?
Phospholipids, such as lecithin.
p.94
Proteins: Structure and Function
How does tertiary structure relate to enzyme specificity?
The specific shape of the enzyme allows it to bind only to certain substrates.
p.105
Enzyme Function and Mechanism
What is the relationship between the active site of an enzyme and its substrate?
The active site of the enzyme is exactly complementary to the substrate.
p.23
Carbohydrates: Structure and Function
What are polysaccharides?
Complex carbohydrates made up of long chains of monosaccharide units.
p.54
Lipids: Types and Functions
What is the main difference between saturated and unsaturated fatty acids?
Saturated fatty acids have no double bonds, while unsaturated fatty acids have one or more double bonds.
p.66
Proteins: Structure and Function
What is the function of the carboxyl group in amino acids?
It contributes to the acidic properties of the amino acid.
p.57
Biological Molecules Overview
What does it mean for a molecule to be amphipathic?
It has one end that is hydrophilic (polar) and another end that is hydrophobic (non-polar).
p.80
Proteins: Structure and Function
What does it mean when a molecule is described as hydrophilic?
It has an affinity for water and can interact with it.
p.108
Enzyme Function and Mechanism
How does the Induced Fit Model differ from the Lock and Key Hypothesis?
The Lock and Key Hypothesis suggests that the active site is a perfect fit for the substrate, while the Induced Fit Model involves a conformational change for a better fit.
p.130
Nucleic Acids: DNA and RNA Structure
What is the specific base-pairing rule in DNA?
The numbers of Adenine equals Thymine (A=T) and the numbers of Guanine equals Cytosine (G=C).
p.45
Lipids: Types and Functions
What is a characteristic property of lipids?
They are hydrophobic molecules and are insoluble in water.
p.76
Proteins: Structure and Function
What are dipeptides?
Molecules formed by two amino acids linked by a peptide bond.
p.18
Carbohydrates: Structure and Function
What are polysaccharides?
Complex carbohydrates made up of long chains of monosaccharide units.
p.78
Protein Structure Levels: Primary to Quaternary
What is the result of a different sequence of amino acids in a protein?
The formation of different bonds between amino acids.
p.63
Lipids: Types and Functions
What are lipids primarily used for?
Lipids are used for energy storage, insulation, and making up cell membranes.
What are the monomers of lipids?
Glycerol and fatty acids.
p.86
Protein Structure Levels: Primary to Quaternary
What is the hierarchical organization of protein structure?
It includes primary, secondary, tertiary, and quaternary structures.
What are some examples of biological polymers?
Carbohydrates, proteins, nucleic acids.
p.117
Nucleic Acids: DNA and RNA Structure
What are the main differences between DNA and RNA?
DNA is double-stranded, contains deoxyribose sugar, and uses thymine, while RNA is single-stranded, contains ribose sugar, and uses uracil instead of thymine.
p.93
Proteins: Structure and Function
What happens to protein bonds when exposed to strong acids and alkalis?
H & ionic bonds and van der Waals interactions break.
What is the relationship between monomers and biological polymers?
Biological polymers are made up of specific monomers.
p.42
Nucleic Acids: DNA and RNA Structure
What are nucleic acids responsible for?
Nucleic acids store and transmit genetic information.
p.104
Enzyme Function and Mechanism
What is the difference between the lock and key model and the induced fit model?
The induced fit model suggests that the active site changes shape to better fit the substrate upon binding.
p.84
Protein Structure Levels: Primary to Quaternary
What type of bond forms between R groups with sulfhydryl groups?
Disulfide bonds (covalent bonds).
p.61
Lipids: Types and Functions
What is the main role of lipids in animals?
Main energy storage due to a higher number of hydrogen atoms.
What determines the uniqueness of a polymer?
The number and type of monomers used to build it.
p.113
Enzyme Function and Mechanism
What occurs to the active site in the Induced-Fit model upon substrate binding?
The binding of the substrate induces conformational changes to the active site of the enzyme.
p.28
Hydrolysis and Condensation Reactions
What process breaks down starch?
Hydrolysis, with the help of the amylase enzyme.
p.48
Lipids: Types and Functions
What characterizes the hydrophobic tail of a fatty acid?
It is a long unbranched hydrocarbon chain.
p.117
Nucleic Acids: DNA and RNA Structure
Why is DNA significant to organisms?
DNA carries genetic information essential for the growth, development, and reproduction of organisms.
p.16
Monomers and Polymers
What is a pentose?
A monosaccharide with 5 carbon atoms.
p.30
Monomers and Polymers
What types of glycosidic bonds join α-glucose molecules in amylopectin?
α-1,4 glycosidic bond and α-1,6 glycosidic bond.
p.96
Enzyme Function and Mechanism
What is the significance of the allosteric site?
It can regulate enzyme activity by binding molecules that change the enzyme's shape.
p.94
Enzyme Function and Mechanism
How do inhibitors affect enzyme catalysis?
Inhibitors can decrease enzyme activity by blocking the active site or altering enzyme shape.
p.12
Carbohydrates: Structure and Function
How can polymerisation of β-glucose form cellulose?
Polymerisation of β-glucose results in straight chains that form cellulose.
p.61
Lipids: Types and Functions
What role do lipids play in thermal insulation for mammals?
They provide better thermal insulation.
p.91
Proteins: Structure and Function
What role do lipoproteins play?
They are lipids that are transported in blood plasma and are components of cell membranes.
p.77
Protein Structure Levels: Primary to Quaternary
What is a conjugated protein?
A protein that contains a non-protein component, such as a metal ion or a carbohydrate.
p.20
Carbohydrates: Structure and Function
How does galactose compare in sweetness to glucose?
Galactose is less sweet than glucose.
p.64
Protein Structure Levels: Primary to Quaternary
What are the hierarchical levels of protein structure?
The hierarchical organization includes primary, secondary, tertiary, and quaternary levels.
p.46
Lipids: Types and Functions
What is the main difference between saturated and unsaturated fatty acids?
Saturated fatty acids have no double bonds, while unsaturated fatty acids have one or more double bonds.
p.107
Enzyme Function and Mechanism
What is a key characteristic of the Lock and Key model?
It emphasizes a rigid fit between enzyme and substrate.
What is ATP?
ATP (adenosine triphosphate) is the primary energy carrier in cells.
p.93
Proteins: Structure and Function
What occurs if proteins are exposed to strong acids or alkalis for a long time?
Breakdown of peptide bonds occurs.
p.29
Carbohydrates: Structure and Function
What is the significance of hydrogen bonds in amylose?
They contribute to the helical structure of amylose.
p.48
Lipids: Types and Functions
What is the structure of the hydrophilic head of a fatty acid?
It contains a carboxyl group (COOH).
p.57
Biological Molecules Overview
How does the structure of phospholipids relate to their function?
Their amphipathic nature allows them to form cell membranes, with hydrophilic heads facing outward and hydrophobic tails facing inward.
p.128
Nucleic Acids: DNA and RNA Structure
What is the significance of complementary base pairing in DNA?
It allows for the determination of the frequency of certain bases based on the frequency of others.
p.107
Enzyme Function and Mechanism
What are the implications of the Induced Fit model for enzyme activity?
It allows for a broader range of substrates to interact with the enzyme, enhancing catalytic efficiency.
p.78
Protein Structure Levels: Primary to Quaternary
What does the folding and coiling of a polypeptide chain lead to?
A unique three-dimensional shape of the protein.
p.84
Protein Structure Levels: Primary to Quaternary
What interactions occur between non-polar R groups?
Hydrophobic / Van der Waals interactions.
p.38
Carbohydrates: Structure and Function
What type of glucose polymerization forms starch or glycogen?
Polymerization of α-glucose.
p.84
Protein Structure Levels: Primary to Quaternary
What is unique about the globular shape of each polypeptide chain?
It is unique to each polypeptide chain.
p.63
Nucleic Acids: DNA and RNA Structure
What are nucleic acids?
Nucleic acids are macromolecules that store and transmit genetic information.
p.20
Carbohydrates: Structure and Function
Where is glucose typically found?
In fruits and vegetables.
p.91
Proteins: Structure and Function
What is a chromoprotein?
A conjugated protein that contains a pigment, such as myoglobin or hemoglobin.
p.18
Carbohydrates: Structure and Function
What is the basic structure of polysaccharides?
Long chains of monosaccharides connected by glycosidic bonds.
p.48
Lipids: Types and Functions
What are the two regions of a fatty acid?
Hydrophilic head and hydrophobic tail.
p.95
Enzyme Function and Mechanism
What can be interpreted from energy level diagrams?
The activation energy and the energy changes during a reaction.
p.113
Enzyme Function and Mechanism
What happens to the active site after substrate binding in the Lock and Key model?
The active site is not changed after binding with the substrate.
p.12
Carbohydrates: Structure and Function
What is the structure of α-glucose?
α-glucose has a specific arrangement of hydroxyl groups that distinguishes it from β-glucose.
p.93
Proteins: Structure and Function
How does pH affect protein structure?
Changes in pH can disrupt H & ionic bonds, affecting protein stability.
p.117
Nucleic Acids: DNA and RNA Structure
What are the complementary base pairing rules in DNA?
Adenine pairs with Thymine (A-T) and Cytosine pairs with Guanine (C-G).
p.11
Enzyme Function and Mechanism
What are enzymes?
Enzymes are proteins that catalyze biochemical reactions.
p.105
Enzyme Function and Mechanism
What happens to the enzyme after the reaction?
The enzyme is not changed or damaged and can be reused.
p.66
Proteins: Structure and Function
What is the role of the amino group in amino acids?
It acts as a base and can accept a proton.
p.77
Protein Structure Levels: Primary to Quaternary
What is the primary structure of a protein?
The sequence of amino acids in a polypeptide chain.
p.31
Carbohydrates: Structure and Function
What is a glycosidic bond?
A bond formed between two monosaccharides through a condensation reaction.
p.116
Lipids: Types and Functions
What are lipids primarily used for?
Lipids are used for energy storage, insulation, and making up cell membranes.
p.61
Lipids: Types and Functions
How do lipids improve buoyancy in aquatic animals?
By being lighter and hydrophobic.
p.27
Carbohydrates: Structure and Function
Are polysaccharides soluble in water?
No, they are insoluble in water and form colloids.
p.38
Carbohydrates: Structure and Function
What type of glucose polymerization forms cellulose?
Polymerization of β-glucose.
p.12
Tests for Biological Molecules
What is Benedict's test used for?
Benedict's test is used to identify reducing and non-reducing sugars.
p.64
Monomers and Polymers
How do dipeptides and polypeptides form?
Dipeptides form when two amino acids join via a peptide bond, and polypeptides form when multiple amino acids are linked together.
p.16
Monomers and Polymers
What is the basic structure of polysaccharides?
Long chains of monosaccharide units linked together.
p.62
Lipids: Types and Functions
How do the structures of triglycerides and phospholipids differ?
Triglycerides have three fatty acids, while phospholipids have two fatty acids and a phosphate group.
p.35
Carbohydrates: Structure and Function
What is a glycosidic bond?
A bond formed between two monosaccharides through a condensation reaction.
What is the role of monomers in living cells?
They are used to create a variety of polymers.
p.96
Enzyme Function and Mechanism
What is the active site of an enzyme?
A specific site on the enzyme that binds to a specific substrate.
p.18
Carbohydrates: Structure and Function
What are disaccharides?
Carbohydrates formed by the combination of two monosaccharides.
p.94
Enzyme Function and Mechanism
What is the lock and key hypothesis?
The model suggesting that the enzyme's active site is a perfect fit for the substrate.
p.96
Enzyme Function and Mechanism
What is the allosteric site of an enzyme?
A site other than the active site where molecules can bind, influencing enzyme activity.
p.12
Carbohydrates: Structure and Function
What is the structure of β-glucose?
β-glucose has a different arrangement of hydroxyl groups compared to α-glucose.
p.69
Proteins: Structure and Function
What property do hydrophobic amino acids have?
They are water-repelling.
p.90
Proteins: Structure and Function
What is the solubility characteristic of globular proteins?
Relatively soluble, forming a colloid.
p.61
Lipids: Types and Functions
What is a characteristic property of lipids that affects their interaction with water?
They are lighter and hydrophobic, meaning they do not associate with water.
p.117
Nucleic Acids: DNA and RNA Structure
What role does RNA play in genetic information transfer?
RNA transfers genetic information from DNA to ribosomes for protein synthesis.
p.91
Proteins: Structure and Function
What is a prosthetic group?
A non-protein compound that is essential for the function of a conjugated protein.
p.48
Lipids: Types and Functions
What is the difference between saturated and unsaturated fatty acids?
Saturated fatty acids have no double bonds between carbon atoms, while unsaturated fatty acids have one or more double bonds.
p.16
Monomers and Polymers
How are monosaccharides classified?
Based on the number of carbon atoms and the position of functional groups.
p.117
Nucleic Acids: DNA and RNA Structure
What are the similarities between DNA and RNA?
Both DNA and RNA are nucleic acids made of nucleotides and play crucial roles in genetic information.
p.6
Hydrolysis and Condensation Reactions
What is the concept of hydrolysis reactions?
A process that breaks down polymers into monomers by adding water.
p.27
Carbohydrates: Structure and Function
What is polymerization in the context of polysaccharides?
The formation of large molecules made up of repeating units of monomers.
p.32
Carbohydrates: Structure and Function
What is a glycosidic bond?
A bond formed between monosaccharides during polymerization.
p.117
Nucleic Acids: DNA and RNA Structure
What is the structure of DNA composed of?
DNA is composed of nucleotides, which include a phosphate group, a sugar, and a nitrogenous base.
p.112
Enzyme Function and Mechanism
What is a key advantage of the induced fit model over the lock and key hypothesis?
It accounts for the dynamic nature of enzyme-substrate interactions and the ability of enzymes to adapt to different substrates.
p.82
Protein Structure Levels: Primary to Quaternary
What allows hydrogen bonds in an α-helix to be reformed?
The ability of the structure to stretch and return.
p.86
Protein Structure Levels: Primary to Quaternary
What types of bonds exist in the tertiary structure of proteins?
Peptide bonds, hydrogen bonds, disulfide bonds, ionic bonds, hydrogen bonds (between R groups), and hydrophobic (van der Waals) interactions.
p.61
Lipids: Types and Functions
How much energy does 1 g of fat provide compared to the same weight of starch?
More than twice the energy.
p.16
Monomers and Polymers
What is a triose?
A monosaccharide with 3 carbon atoms.
p.86
Protein Structure Levels: Primary to Quaternary
What are some examples of proteins with tertiary structure?
Enzymes, hormones, antibodies.
p.72
Proteins: Structure and Function
Can you name three non-essential amino acids?
Alanine, arginine, asparagine.
p.48
Lipids: Types and Functions
What is the significance of the carboxyl group in fatty acids?
It makes the head hydrophilic and gives the molecule acidic properties.
p.77
Protein Structure Levels: Primary to Quaternary
What characterizes the secondary structure of a protein?
The folding or coiling of the polypeptide chain into alpha-helices or beta-sheets.
p.16
Monomers and Polymers
What is a hexose?
A monosaccharide with 6 carbon atoms.
Why is water important for biological molecules?
Water is essential for biochemical reactions and maintaining cellular structure.
p.96
Enzyme Function and Mechanism
What is activation energy?
The minimum energy required for a chemical reaction to occur.
p.6
Hydrolysis and Condensation Reactions
What is the concept of condensation reactions?
A process that forms polymers by joining monomers and releasing water.
Why is water important for biological molecules?
Water is a solvent for biochemical reactions and helps maintain cell structure.
p.34
Carbohydrates: Structure and Function
What is the structure of cellulose?
Unbranched, long straight chain.
p.86
Protein Structure Levels: Primary to Quaternary
Which bonds are present in the secondary structure of proteins?
Peptide bonds and hydrogen bonds (between C=O & NH group of backbone).
p.65
Proteins: Structure and Function
What do amino acids join together to form?
A long chain called a polypeptide.
p.3
Hydrolysis and Condensation Reactions
What is a hydrolysis reaction?
A hydrolysis reaction is the process of breaking down polymers into monomers by adding water.
p.74
Proteins: Structure and Function
What is the significance of dipeptides and polypeptides in biology?
They are essential for protein structure and function.
p.24
Hydrolysis and Condensation Reactions
What happens to maltose during hydrolysis?
It breaks down into two α-glucose molecules.
p.11
Nucleic Acids: DNA and RNA Structure
What is the function of nucleic acids?
Nucleic acids store and transmit genetic information.
p.19
Carbohydrates: Structure and Function
What is the chemical formula for pentose sugars?
C5H10O5 for ribose and C5H10O4 for deoxyribose.
p.43
Lipids: Types and Functions
How do triglycerides form?
Triglycerides form through the condensation reaction between glycerol and three fatty acids, resulting in the release of water molecules.
p.72
Proteins: Structure and Function
Why are proteins important to the body?
They have a variety of functions essential for bodily processes.
p.63
Enzyme Function and Mechanism
What are enzymes?
Enzymes are proteins that catalyze biochemical reactions.
p.91
Proteins: Structure and Function
What is a glycoprotein?
A conjugated protein that has a polysaccharide component.
p.19
Carbohydrates: Structure and Function
What happens to pentose and hexose sugars when dissolved in water?
They form a ring structure, which is more stable.
p.18
Carbohydrates: Structure and Function
What is the basic structure of disaccharides?
Two monosaccharides linked by a glycosidic bond.
p.27
Carbohydrates: Structure and Function
How can polysaccharides be broken down into monomers?
Through hydrolysis, which involves the addition of water molecules.
p.34
Monomers and Polymers
What is the difference between the polymerization of α-glucose and β-glucose?
α-glucose forms starch or glycogen, while β-glucose forms cellulose.
p.69
Proteins: Structure and Function
What property do hydrophilic amino acids have?
They are water-attracting.
p.43
Lipids: Types and Functions
What is the difference between saturated and unsaturated fatty acids?
Saturated fatty acids have no double bonds between carbon atoms, while unsaturated fatty acids have one or more double bonds.
p.93
Proteins: Structure and Function
What is the impact of temperature on protein structure?
Increased temperature can lead to denaturation by breaking bonds and interactions.
p.27
Carbohydrates: Structure and Function
What are polysaccharides?
Large molecules made up of many sugar molecules; they are polymers.
p.113
Enzyme Function and Mechanism
Can enzymes be reused after a reaction in the Lock and Key model?
Yes, the enzyme does not change and can be reused after the reaction.
p.94
Enzyme Function and Mechanism
What role does substrate concentration play in enzyme activity?
Higher substrate concentration can increase the rate of reaction until saturation is reached.
p.113
Enzyme Function and Mechanism
What happens to the enzyme after the product is released in the Induced-Fit model?
The enzyme reverts to its original conformation when the product is released.
p.64
Tests for Biological Molecules
What is the Biuret test used for?
The Biuret test is used to detect the presence of proteins.
p.77
Protein Structure Levels: Primary to Quaternary
What defines the tertiary structure of a protein?
The overall three-dimensional shape formed by the folding of the polypeptide chain.
p.116
Enzyme Function and Mechanism
What are enzymes?
Enzymes are proteins that catalyze biochemical reactions.
What is ATP?
ATP (adenosine triphosphate) is the primary energy carrier in cells.
p.32
Carbohydrates: Structure and Function
What is the primary function of amylose?
Ideal for energy storage (insoluble, coiled, compact).
p.20
Carbohydrates: Structure and Function
What type of sugar is classified as a hexose?
A sugar with 6 carbon atoms.
p.108
Enzyme Function and Mechanism
What happens to the enzyme's active site when a substrate attaches according to the Induced Fit Model?
The active site undergoes a conformational change to fit the substrate more effectively.
p.65
Proteins: Structure and Function
What is a protein composed of?
One or more polypeptide chains folded and coiled into a specific conformation.
p.45
Lipids: Types and Functions
What are the three major types of lipids?
Fats, steroids, and phospholipids.
p.76
Proteins: Structure and Function
What is the significance of the peptide bond in protein structure?
It links amino acids together to form polypeptides.
p.12
Carbohydrates: Structure and Function
What is a glycosidic bond?
A glycosidic bond is a type of covalent bond that links monosaccharides together to form disaccharides and polysaccharides.
p.64
Proteins: Structure and Function
What is the general structure of an amino acid?
An amino acid consists of a central carbon atom, an amino group, a carboxyl group, a hydrogen atom, and a variable R group (side chain).
p.97
Enzyme Function and Mechanism
What is the transition state in enzyme reactions?
Enzyme - Substrate Complex (ES).
p.19
Carbohydrates: Structure and Function
Provide examples of hexose sugars.
Glucose, galactose, and fructose.
p.43
Lipids: Types and Functions
What are the different properties of triglycerides compared to phospholipids?
Triglycerides are primarily energy storage molecules, while phospholipids are key components of cell membranes, providing structure and function.
p.61
Lipids: Types and Functions
What function do lipids serve as padding?
They act as padding for internal organs.
Why is water important for biological molecules?
Water is a solvent for biochemical reactions and helps maintain cell structure.
p.82
Protein Structure Levels: Primary to Quaternary
Give an example of a protein that contains α-helices.
Keratin in hair, nails, and wool.
p.91
Proteins: Structure and Function
What are conjugated proteins?
Proteins that function well when joined with a non-protein compound, known as a prosthetic group.
p.116
Carbohydrates: Structure and Function
What is the primary function of carbohydrates?
Carbohydrates serve as a primary energy source and structural components.
p.65
Proteins: Structure and Function
What elements mostly compose proteins?
Carbon (C), Hydrogen (H), Oxygen (O), Nitrogen (N), and sometimes Sulfur (S).
p.27
Carbohydrates: Structure and Function
What is a characteristic of polysaccharides regarding sweetness?
Polysaccharides are not sweet.
p.117
Nucleic Acids: DNA and RNA Structure
What are the structural components of an RNA nucleotide?
An RNA nucleotide consists of a phosphate group, a ribose sugar, and a nitrogenous base.
p.18
Carbohydrates: Structure and Function
What is the basic structure of monosaccharides?
They typically have a backbone of carbon atoms with hydroxyl groups and a carbonyl group.
p.45
Lipids: Types and Functions
What is the difference between saturated and unsaturated fatty acids?
Saturated fatty acids have no double bonds between carbon atoms, while unsaturated fatty acids have one or more double bonds.
p.30
Monomers and Polymers
What is a glycosidic bond?
A bond formed between monosaccharides during polymerization.
p.27
Carbohydrates: Structure and Function
What type of glucose polymerization forms starch or glycogen?
Polymerization of α-glucose.
p.62
Lipids: Types and Functions
What are the building blocks of triglycerides?
Glycerol and three fatty acids.
p.66
Proteins: Structure and Function
What is the general structure of an amino acid?
A central carbon atom bonded to a hydrogen atom, a carboxyl group, an amino group, and a variable R group.
What is ATP?
ATP (adenosine triphosphate) is the primary energy carrier in cells.
p.62
Lipids: Types and Functions
What are the building blocks of phospholipids?
Glycerol, two fatty acids, and a phosphate group.
p.30
Carbohydrates: Structure and Function
What is the structural characteristic of amylopectin?
It has a helical, branched chain structure.
p.116
Proteins: Structure and Function
What is the role of proteins in biological systems?
Proteins function as enzymes, structural components, and signaling molecules.
p.64
Tests for Biological Molecules
How can the results of the Biuret test be interpreted?
A positive result is indicated by a color change to purple, while a negative result remains blue.
p.16
Monomers and Polymers
What are the three classes of carbohydrates?
Monosaccharides, disaccharides, and polysaccharides.
p.116
Nucleic Acids: DNA and RNA Structure
What are nucleic acids responsible for?
Nucleic acids store and transmit genetic information.
p.61
Lipids: Types and Functions
What are steroids and their role in the body?
Some steroids are hormones that regulate metabolism.
p.77
Protein Structure Levels: Primary to Quaternary
What is the quaternary structure of a protein?
The arrangement of multiple polypeptide chains into a single functional unit.
p.30
Carbohydrates: Structure and Function
Why is amylopectin considered ideal for storage?
Because it is folded and branched, making it very compact.
p.91
Proteins: Structure and Function
What is a nucleoprotein?
A conjugated protein that includes nucleic acids, found in structures like chromosomes and ribosomes.
p.64
Protein Structure Levels: Primary to Quaternary
What types of bonds are involved in protein structure?
Types of bonds include peptide bonds, hydrogen bonds, ionic bonds, and disulfide bridges.
p.64
Proteins: Structure and Function
What variety of functions do proteins have in the body?
Proteins serve various functions including structural support, transport, enzymes, hormones, and immune response.
p.32
Carbohydrates: Structure and Function
What is the shape of amylopectin?
Helical and branched (within 30 units).
p.62
Lipids: Types and Functions
What is a similarity between triglycerides and phospholipids?
Both are types of lipids.
p.64
Proteins: Structure and Function
How does the structure of proteins relate to their properties?
The specific arrangement of amino acids determines the protein's shape, which in turn influences its function and properties.
p.27
Carbohydrates: Structure and Function
What type of glucose polymerization forms cellulose?
Polymerization of β-glucose.
p.12
Tests for Biological Molecules
What is the test for starch?
The iodine test, where iodine solution turns blue-black in the presence of starch.
p.34
Hydrolysis and Condensation Reactions
How is cellulose broken down?
By hydrolysis with the help of the cellulase enzyme.
