Mucous saliva (less in volume)
<p>Mucous saliva (less in volume)</p>
Loose connective tissue (LCT).
<p>Crypt of Lieberkuhn</p>
<ol class="tight" data-tight="true"><li><p>Goblet cells </p></li><li><p>enteroendocrine cells</p></li><li><p>lamina propria (loose connective tissue)</p></li><li><p>lamina muscularis mucosae</p></li></ol><p></p>
<p>Large mucosal folds that add to the intestinal surface area.</p><p>= the tunica mucosa are thrown into folds </p><p>more folds = increases the surface area for the contact of food material </p>
<p>In the brush border </p>
<p>They activate Trypsinogen into trypsin which is the activator for chymotrypsinogen which will then be activated into chymotrypsin </p>
<ol class="tight" data-tight="true"><li><p>phospholipase A2</p></li><li><p>Nuclease</p></li><li><p>Nucleotidase</p></li><li><p>Nucleosidase </p></li></ol><p></p>
<ol class="tight" data-tight="true"><li><p>maltase</p></li><li><p>lactase </p></li><li><p>sucrase</p></li><li><p>α-limit dextrinase</p></li></ol><p></p>
<ol class="tight" data-tight="true"><li><p>Secretin</p></li><li><p>Cholecystokinin or Pancreozymin</p></li><li><p>Gastric Inhibitory Peptide (GIP) or Enterogastrone or Glucose-dependent Insulinotrophic Peptide</p></li><li><p>Vasoactive Intestinal Peptide (VIP)</p></li></ol><p></p>
<img src="https://gkfeqerieuvmtwfjnifi.supabase.co/storage/v1/object/public/tiptap-images/877d009c-5fe7-40c8-9f1b-e02795030cc1/JuiDiML6kLDukGYgIi4KfewA.png" data-width="100%" data-align="center"><p></p>
<p>Both secretin and CCK are secreted simultaneously </p>
<img src="https://gkfeqerieuvmtwfjnifi.supabase.co/storage/v1/object/public/tiptap-images/877d009c-5fe7-40c8-9f1b-e02795030cc1/mI2fGUJz73k-HOlMu3FdmIH9.png" data-width="100%" data-align="center"><p></p>
<p>a. inhibits gastric juice secretion</p><p>b. enhances insulin release</p><p>c. reduces contraction of gastric smooth muscles or gastric motility (to regulate the amount of chyme that enters the stomach)</p>
<p>The taenia coli forms haustrations or sacculations, important for mixing and fermentation</p>
<p>Pigs and large animals </p>
<p>Taenia coli </p>
<p>The taenia coli in the large intestines is characterized by the thickening of the outer tunica muscularis. When they contract, it forms haustrations or sacculations which are important for mixing and fermentation of food materials </p>
<p>1.Site of absorption of water</p><p>2.Site of absorption of electrolytes</p><p>3.Site of microbial fermentation in non-ruminant herbivores (specially horses)</p><p>4.Storage of fecal matter until expulsion</p><p>5.Site of microbial fermentation in non-ruminant herbivores</p><p>6.Storage of fecal matter until expulsion</p>
<p>If we divide the alimentary canal, for proteins, the initial digestion of proteins takes place in the stomach because of the secretion of proteases such as pepsin which can digest our polypeptides into shorter peptides. These peptides will then go to the small intestine which will then be further digested into amino acids where these will be absorbed in the small intestine </p><img src="https://gkfeqerieuvmtwfjnifi.supabase.co/storage/v1/object/public/tiptap-images/877d009c-5fe7-40c8-9f1b-e02795030cc1/d1uiEZagpxUpXHOpoVpgKLu5.png" data-width="100%" data-align="center"><p></p>
<p>For starch, there are 2 processes </p><ol class="tight" data-tight="true"><li><p>Horses secrete salivary amylase which allow starch to be converted into maltose which will then be transported into SI. Here they will be acted upon by the pancreatic amylase and maltase that will digest it into glucose molecules </p></li><li><p>Horses are hindgut fermenters so they require carbohydrates to be fermented and acted upon by microbes such as bacteria. These microbial bacteria in the cecum would be converted into Volatile Fatty Acids = butyric acid, acetic acid, and propionic acid</p></li></ol><p></p>
<p>In the stomach, where proteases such as pepsin are able to digest these proteins from polypeptides to shorter peptides. These peptides then go into the small intestine to be further digested by peptidases into amino acids where they are absorbed in the small intestine</p>
<p>For monogastric animals = no initial digestion in the mouth </p><p>In the stomach, there is curdling particularly for the carnivores </p><p>Initial digestion takes place in the small intestine where bile salts allow the emulsification of fats while lipases are for the digestion of the fats into fatty acids and monoglycerols </p>
<p>Carbohydrates contain starch and they are initially digested into maltose through the action of salivary amylase within the oral cavity. Some of the starch and maltose will be transported into the small intestine where they can be further digested into monosacharide glucose by pancreatic amylase and maltase. The site of absorption for simple sugars are in the small intestine </p>
<p>Proteins are initially digested in the stomach due to the production of pepsin where polypeptides are digested into shorter peptides. Most of the protein digestion takes place in the small intestine due to the action of intestinal peptidases and pancreatic peptidases. The product, amino acids, will then be absorbed in the small intestine </p>
<p>Fats are digested in the SI through the action of bile salts for emulsification and lipases for digestion. Its products, fatty acids and monoglycerols are absorbed in the the SI</p>
<p>Horses eat roughages and the carbohydrates found here are cellulose and hemicellulose. There is no digestion taking place in the mouth, stomach and small intestine because animals do not have cellulase. Therefore, they are dependent on the microbial fermentation of the hindgut microbes to digest cellulose and hemicellulose to digest them into VFAs</p><p></p>
<p>NOT in the small intestine (SI), instead in the <strong><u>Large intestine</u></strong></p>
<p>In the duodenal loop </p>
<ol class="tight" data-tight="true"><li><p>Pancreatic Islet or Islet of Langerhans</p></li><li><p>Pancreatic acini (composed of the acinar cells, centroacinar cells, intralocular duct, and basket cells)</p></li></ol><p></p>
<p>These acinar cells are the ones producing the enzymes that are part of the pancreatic juice being released in the duodenum </p>
<p>Sphincter of Oddi</p>
<p>This sphincter opens in order to empty the pancreatic juice into the duodenum so that the enzymes can act on the components of the food ingested and at the same time, the sodium bicarbonate produced by the pancreatic ductile cells can act as a buffer in order to neutralize the acidity of the chyme </p>
<ol class="tight" data-tight="true"><li><p>alpha cells </p></li><li><p>beta cells </p></li><li><p>delta cells </p></li><li><p>gamma cells </p></li></ol><p></p>
<p>It neutralizes the acidic pH of the chyme</p>
<p>Cleaves peptide bonds adjacent to Arg or Lys</p>
<p>Amino acids </p>
<p>proteins </p>
<p>short peptides </p>
<p>It makes an anchor for lipase allowing it to bind to the bile salt-triglyceride-water interface</p>
<p>proteins </p>
<p>Fat droplets </p>
<p>Trypsin</p>
<p>Chlorine </p>
<p>arranged radially, form cord-like arrangement</p>
<p>The source of bicarbonate is from the CO2 from the blood vessels supplying the pancreas. As it enters the pancreatic ductular cells, water enters as well, and they mix to form carbonic acid. Carbonic acid (H2CO3) then dissociates into H ions and HCO3 ions. The bicarbonate and Na ions in the pancreatic ductular cells will be transported into the pancreatic duct lumen, and in this lumen, they will undergo coupling or binding to form sodium bicarbonate </p>
<p>hepatocytes</p>
<p>sinusoids </p>
<p>Von Kuppfer cells </p>
<p>Portal triad</p><p>= called this way because it contains the:</p><ol class="tight" data-tight="true"><li><p>hepatic/portal vein</p></li><li><p>hepatic artery </p></li><li><p>interlobular bile duct </p></li></ol><p>= two of which are blood vessels </p><p></p>
<p>hepatic acinus</p><p>= formed between 2 hepatic lobules</p>
<p>= intermediately oxygenated </p>
<p>It is the area closest to the portal triad and is involved in the uptake of nutrients and oxygen.</p><p>= where the hepatic artery and hepatic vein are located</p><p>= best oxygenated zone </p><p>= disadvantage = first to absorb blood-borne toxins from the portal blood making them the most vlunerable</p>
<p>The products of digestion are delivered to the liver for metabolism therefore, it needs to be vascularized </p>
<p>This causes an increase in pressure in the space of Disse in the liver. This will lead to an increased production in lymph which can lead to Ascites or the abnormal accumulation of fluids in the abdominal region of the animal</p><p></p>
<p>Blood contains hemoglobin, and this is where iron is attached. When this dissociates, it separates the heme, globin, and iron components. The heme component which contains bilirubin is toxic, and it goes out of the dead or damaged RBC and it goes to the blood plasma then it binds to albumin. The albumin then carries bilirubin through the blood and when it reaches the liver, it cleaves from the albumin and that free bilirubin undergoes conjugation with the glucuronic acid. This conjugated bilirubin will now be released into the bile and it will enter the bile canaliculi or the duct system and it will then be released into the small intestine. There, it will be acted upon by the small intestine forming the Urobilinogen and the stercobilinogen. The urobilinogen is responsible for the pale yellow color of the urine and this is the way it is excreted out of the body of the animal. The stercobilinogen would be excreted as feces and it is responsible for imparting the light brown color of feces</p>
Iron.
Rennin activity decreases with age.
No.
In the ileum.
Mixing, grinding, and sieving of food.
Cholesterol esters.
The presence of peptides, amino acids, and fats in chyme in the duodenum.
Trypsin.
Vitamin B12.
Choleliths.
Endoscopy - Choledoscopy.
Blood flows from the portal triad through the sinusoids to the central vein.
Oxidation of fats (triglycerides).
Vitamin B12.
Mucus.
Inactive enzyme precursors that are activated in the digestive system.
By active transport through enterocytes.
<p>Serous saliva (more in volume)</p>
Sodium (Na), Potassium (K), Calcium (Ca), Magnesium (Mg).
Glycocalyx, along with microvilli.
It aids in the digestion of food.
Pepsin is reversibly inactivated.
Bind organisms or pathogens.
Lipase.
Acetic, propionic, and butyric acids.
In the large intestine.
Mucus.
Cecum, Colon, Rectum, Anus.
<p>A muscular tube that connects the oropharynx to the stomach.</p><p>Contracts in order to transport food from the oropharynx into the stomach. This is possible because it is composed of skeletal muscles and for some, the caudal part is formed by smooth muscles </p>
The mouth from the nasopharynx.
<p>Inner circular arrangement of the smooth muscles and outer longitudinal arrangement of the 2nd layer of smooth muscles</p>
Cholesterol and phospholipids.
To process nutrients from the digestive system.
It promotes glycogenesis in skeletal muscles and the liver.
Energy-rich nutrients.
Yes.
Cutting or shearing.
<p>Simple columnar absorptive epithelium with many Goblet cells.</p>
Alcohol.
Chewing and grinding.
<p>These pinkish-staining goblet-shaped cells secrete mucin that mixes with water to form mucous that coats the wall of the small intestine</p>
Gall bladder stones.
Mouth, esophagus, stomach, small intestine, large intestine, and accessory glands.
It can range from mild to excruciating.
Birds have a crop for storage and a gizzard for grinding food.
Domestic animals such as horse, deer, elk, moose, giraffe, camel, elephant, and pigeon.
To increase surface area for absorption.
By diffusion through enterocytes.
Pancreatic ductular cells.
Cutting or shearing.
Inflammation of the gallbladder or bile duct epithelium.
Oropharynx and larynx.
<ol class="tight" data-tight="true"><li><p>Peptidases or proteases (protein-digesting enzymes)</p></li><li><p>sucrase, maltase, isomaltase, lactase (carbohydrate-digesting enzymes)</p></li><li><p> intestinal lipase, and phospholipase (lipases that digest fats)</p></li></ol><p></p>
It serves as a detoxification gland.
Lipoproteins.
Stasis of the gallbladder or bile duct.
It filters blood to remove waste products, including urobilinogen.
Icterus.
It has a high concentration of organic components.
Obesity, acute high calorie intake, high fat diet, diabetes mellitus, hypercholesteronemia.
Electrolytes.
Precipitation of cholesterol in the gall bladder and/or ducts.
No, they are not present in all animal species.
Ultrasound.
Excess absorption of H2O in bile.
They serve as a prehensile organ, being soft and flexible.
Provides lubrication.
To produce digestive enzymes and hormones, including insulin.
<p>Gastrinoma, which are gastrin-secreting tumors</p>
<ol class="tight" data-tight="true"><li><p>connective tissues</p></li><li><p>nerves</p></li><li><p>blood vessels - supplies the GI tract</p></li><li><p>duodenal or Brunners glands</p></li></ol><p></p>
They are an associated structure of the mouth.
Specialized blood vessels where blood enters.
Carbohydrates.
Bile.
Bile.
Swallowing temporarily interrupts normal respiration.
To aid in digestion once activated.
It increases the surface area of fat for lipase action.
Mucus.
It regulates the endocrine system and inhibits hormone secretion.
Maltose.
<img src="https://gkfeqerieuvmtwfjnifi.supabase.co/storage/v1/object/public/tiptap-images/877d009c-5fe7-40c8-9f1b-e02795030cc1/SpKTnUuz-LP0pKZNBDAAe7BR.png" data-width="100%" data-align="center"><p>= enteropeptidase or enterokinase</p>
By increasing the surface area of fat for lipase action.
Toxins.
AY 2023 - 24.
Cholecystectomy.
<p>It has the same action as rennin.</p>
Lactic acid.
Cheese making.
The process of enzymatic decomposition and utilization of food by bacteria.
75%.
<p>Horse = comma-shaped cecum</p>
25%.
To propel food to the stomach.
Peristalsis and the opening of the pyloric sphincter.
<p>myenteric ganglion plexus</p>
<p>Ascending colon (spiral colon), very short transverse colon, descending colon.</p>
<p>Promotes growth of gastric mucosa.</p><p>= Cells present in the organs have a lifespan. This means that the old and dying cells need to be replaced by new cells, including those in the gastric mucosa. This is the role of gastrin</p>
<p>Vitamin B12 is important when it comes to the maturation of red blood cells </p><p>= This is why if there is a deficiency in intrinsic factor production, this will also lead to pernicious anemia which is characterized by the presence of immature red blood cells </p>
Due to the presence of bacteria in the LI.
Ascending colon (spiral colon), transverse colon, descending colon.
Proteins can influence the rate of gastric emptying, but the effect is less pronounced than fats.
It occurs with low frequency.
It provides support and contains blood vessels, nerves, and glands.
Closely associated with the larynx.
In the gall bladder.
<p>HCO3- or bicarbonate ions </p>
Slightly alkaline.
<p>2 Glucose molecules</p>
They are converted into active enzymes in the digestive tract.
It helps emulsify fats for digestion.
They mix together.
Proteins & Polypeptides.
Plasma proteins, including albumin, globulins, and clotting factors like fibrinogen.
<p>A series of tubular glands for the transport of food.</p>
Emulsification of fats.
<p>They aid in the digestion process</p>
Zone 1 (periportal), Zone 2 (mid-zonal), and Zone 3 (centrilobular).
The cheeks.
To break down food and mix it with digestive juices.
They help position food between teeth for chewing.
The large intestine.
Mucus.
<p>Minute extensions at the apex of enterocytes that increase surface area for absorption.</p><p>= found in the villi</p>
<p>A common passageway for food and air.</p><p>Serves to transport food from the oral cavity to the esophagus </p>
<p>CO2 (most abundant), methane, H, and N.</p>
The process by which the body converts food into energy and nutrients.
By converting excess carbohydrates and proteins into fats.
<p>Zollinger-Ellison syndrome in dogs</p><p>G cells become hyperactive leading to an increase in the production of gastrin </p>
It protects Vitamin B12 from gastric and intestinal digestion.
<p>Preprogastrin</p><p>Gastrin is arising from a longer peptide known as preprogastrin which will eventually be cleaved into progastrin</p>
Vitamin K and B.
<p>Finger-like projections that cover the small intestine mucous membrane.</p><p>= important in the absorptive capacity of the SI</p><p>= You can distinguish the duodenum, jejunum, and ileum based on the shape and depth of the invaginations of the villi</p>
Gastrin.
Lingual glands.
Stimulates gastric acid secretion.
<p>1.5 to 3.0 (very acidic)</p>
To neutralize stomach acid in the small intestine.
Through the inhalation and exhalation of air.
The organic part of bile.
Sodium bicarbonate (NaHCO3).
151 feet.
It can be caused by obstruction of the cystic duct or chronic inflammation.
In the pancreas.
Cut and grind food.
Minor indigestion.
<p>1. site of enzymatic digestion</p><p>2. site of absorption of digested food</p><p>3. site of absorption of vitamins</p><p>4. site of absorption of fluids</p>
Labial glands.
HCO3 (bicarbonate) ions.
Bilirubin and urobilinogen.
Food, water, and gastric juice.
They close the mouth and are stiff and immobile.
<ol class="tight" data-tight="true"><li><p>Pancreatic juice rich in enzymes </p></li><li><p>Pancreatic juice rich in NaHCO3 (sodium bicarbonate)</p></li></ol><p></p>
By reabsorbing water and electrolytes, up to 5 times.
Gastrin-34 (big gastrin).
Insulin and glucagon.
95%.
<p>The presence of food (peptides, amino acids, calcium) in the stomach.</p><p>Gastrin is secreted by the G cells of the stomach when food enters the stomach</p>
The area where blood proteins and fluid enter from sinusoids.
Pepsin is irreversibly inactivated.
Saliva.
Yes.
Mucosa, submucosa, muscularis, and serosa.
A digestive system that has only one opening for both ingestion and excretion.
<p>To maneuver food within the mouth for mastication</p>
Horses, rabbits, and some rodents.
Treatment often involves surgical removal of the gallbladder (cholecystectomy).
It reduces contraction of gastric smooth muscles.
The serosa.
They make up 1/2 of the total solutes.
To secrete mucus.
Fatty acids and lysophospholipids.
Lecithin.
<p>Receptive relaxation of stomach to accommodate food with little if any pressure</p><p>= as the stomach is being filled up, the stomach controls the buildup of pressure to prevent bursting of stomach</p>
Serves as a storage site for vitamins and minerals.
The large intestine.
<p>It is the area farthest from the portal triad and is more susceptible to ischemia and toxic injury.</p><p>= poorly oxygenated</p><p>= near the central vein of the hepatic lobule</p>
They are lipid soluble.
Simple stomach animals have a single-chambered stomach, while ruminants have a multi-chambered stomach for fermentation.
Surgical removal of the gall bladder.
Methyl group.
Hard palate.
Storage of fecal matter until expulsion.
<p>1. lines & protects intestinal epithelium</p><p>2. for lubrication</p><p>3. binds bacteria</p><p>4. holds immunoglobulins (Ig) so that they can bind the organisms or pathogens</p>
<p>The type of food ingested.</p><p>= Carbohydrates fastest, proteins next, fats slowest</p>
Enteroendocrine cells.
Storage of bile.
Promotes gluconeogenesis from amino acids and fats.
Hydrochloric acid (HCl) and intrinsic factor.
To move food from the mouth to the esophagus.
<p>Fats.</p><p>the stomach takes long to digest it that is why you wont feel hungry for a longer period of time</p>
<p>large ascending colon, transverse colon, small descending colon</p>
Pernicious anemia.
Glucagon.
Gastrin.
In the liver.
In the large intestine (LI).
There are two main types: complete digestive systems and incomplete digestive systems.
Palatine glands.
Parietal or oxyntic cells.
Insulin.
Enzymes that break down peptides into amino acids.
It allows milk to stay longer in the stomach and aids in the digestion of milk proteins.
Rennet.
It increases the surface area for lipase to act on.
They help in the mechanical digestion of food.
Chyme.
<p>Pepsinogen = the peptide activated to form pepsin</p>
Excess absorption of bile acids can lead to gallstones.
The entry of food into the larynx and nasal cavity.
From the breakdown of hemoglobin in red blood cells.
A condition characterized by the accumulation of mucus in the gallbladder.
Binds bacteria.
Peristalsis.
Tunica serosa.
pH 8.0.
85 feet.
Taurine or Glycine.
Tunica submucosa.
Dog.
Chewing and grinding.
C-terminal amino acids that have basic side chains.
Villi.
They are enzymes that break down fats and phospholipids.
A single-chambered stomach.
To lubricate food.
It routes food into the esophagus.
Trypsinogen.
Their primary function is to aid in the digestion and absorption of fats in the small intestine.
HCO3 ions.
Cholesterol.
<p>It cleaves or digests polypeptides into shorter peptides</p>
It prevents damage to the gastric mucosa.
Glycogenolysis.
Sour.
A digestive system with a separate mouth and anus, allowing for a one-way flow of food.
<p>To digest starch by hydrolyzing 1:4 α linkages in carbohydrates </p>
To ferment and digest fibrous plant material.
50%.
It enhances insulin release.
The gastric mucosa.
Brown.
<p>Columnar cells or enterocytes and goblet cells</p>
Deoxycholic acid.
Gastric chief cells.
<p>Salivary amylase or lingual ptyalin</p>
Bonds adjacent to aliphatic amino acids.
Glands found in the mucosa of the large intestine.
It is a major site for fermentation and absorption of nutrients.
With mechanical and enzymatic breakdown in the mouth.
Fundus of the stomach.
Free fatty acids (FFA) and diacylglycerol.
Surrounds the esophagus just as it enters the stomach.
<p>It is relaxed or open hence allowing food to pass going to the stomach</p><p>When they are not eating, it is closed and constricted</p>
Pancreatic juice secretion (enzyme-rich).
Semi-liquid portions of food less than 2 mm in diameter.
Cholesterol.
H+ ions are a component of hydrochloric acid (HCl) secreted by parietal cells.
It combines with H+ ions to form hydrochloric acid (HCl).
RNA.
Mastication or chewing.
Yes.
Trypsin.
States of malnutrition, hypoglycemia, or starvation.
Bicarbonate (HCO3), Chloride (Cl), Sulfate (SO4), and Hydrogen Phosphate (HPO4).
Carbohydrates (CHO), proteins, and fats.
Amylase, lipase, and proteases.
44,000 gastrin receptors.
It is responsible for the peristaltic movements that propel food through the canal.
As proenzymes.
<p>they are trapped in the mucous layer in the gastric mucosa and they neutralize the acids found in the gastric lumen in order to prevent damage to the gastric mucosa </p>
Secretion of NaHCO3.
The liver.
<p>Non-essential amino acids</p><p>= Skeletal muscles and liver are the two body structures that can synthesize non-essential amino acids therefore, they may not be supplied through the diet</p>
The last two-thirds of the body of the stomach and the pylorus.
Short peptides.
They produce hydrochloric acid (HCl).
A secondary bile acid.
To provide the sense of taste.
Hindgut fermenters digest food after it has passed through the stomach, while ruminants digest it in multiple stomach chambers.
It reduces contraction of gastric smooth muscles.
Dipeptides.
Bicarbonate (HCO3-) and chloride (Cl-).
They secrete enzymes and digestive juices to aid in digestion.
Gastric reflux of stomach contents.
Nucleic acids.
It is responsible for secretion, absorption, and protection.
A watery solution containing sodium (Na) and bicarbonate (HCO3) from ductal epithelial cells.
Symptoms may include abdominal pain, nausea, and vomiting.
Enterohepatic circulation.
Parotid gland.
Pale yellow.
IgA, lysozyme, lactoferrin, and thiocyanate ions.
Cholic Acid.
It filters toxins from the blood.
Deglutition.
60 feet.
HCl activates pepsinogen to pepsin.
They help break down cellulose and other complex carbohydrates.
Bile via the common bile duct.
Many cnidarians and flatworms.
Accumulation of excessive amounts of free or conjugated bilirubin in the extracellular fluid (ECF).
Bile flows to the common bile duct.
Cholesterol is the precursor for the synthesis of bile acids in the liver.
It poses a barrier to microbial invasion of the gastrointestinal tract.
Peptide bonds adjacent to aromatic amino acids.
<p>Cleaves peptide bonds adjacent to aromatic amino acids into short peptides</p>
Short peptides.
It routes food into the stomach.
Trypsinogen.
Rennin or Chemosin or Chymosin.
Nucleosides.
Bile production, metabolism, detoxification, and storage of nutrients.
<ol class="tight" data-tight="true"><li><p>Pancreatic acinar cells = pancreatic juice rich in enzymes</p></li><li><p>pancreatic ductal cells = pancreatic juice rich in sodium bicarbonate</p></li></ol><p></p>
Zygomatic glands.
<p>In parietal cells.</p><p>When gastrin binds to these gastrin receptors in the parietal cells, it stimulates the parietal cells to produce Hydrochloric acid</p>
The liver.
Mouth, pharynx, and esophagus.
Proximal stomach and distal stomach.
<p>prochymosin</p>
Protects oral mucosa and maintains oral hygiene.
Bile salts are formed by the conjugation of bile acids with amino acids, primarily glycine and taurine.
<p>Goblet cells and crypt of Lieberkuhn</p><p>= The large intestine as it goes distally, there is an increase in goblet cells since we need the mucous for the binding of the fecal material and it will also facilitate the transport and elimination of the fecal material</p>
Yellowish discoloration of mucous membranes, skin, and sclera.
Endopeptidase.
For proper digestion and absorption.
Glucose and galactose.
Short peptides.
Sucrose.
Bile salts emulsify fats, increasing their surface area for digestive enzymes to act upon.
Bilirubin and biliverdin.
Procarboxy-peptidase A.
Glucose.
By regulating blood sugar levels and storing glycogen.
Aldehydes.
It allows modulating diet for electrolyte balance.
73 feet.
Bile acids are steroid acids found predominantly in the bile of mammals, synthesized from cholesterol.
<p>enteroendocrine cells</p>
Polypeptides.
<p>Conversion of NH3 to urea.</p><p>= this urea is from the catabolism of skeletal muscles that leads to the formation of ammonia. This ammonia is transported from the skeletal muscle cells to the liver and it is converted into urea, and eliminated through urine</p>
Most vertebrates and some invertebrates.
HCO3- ions.
Umami.
Lecithin.
Contains smooth muscles.
Pancreozymin (PZ).
Pancreatic juice via the hepatic duct.
It produces an alkaline pH for optimal absorption.
Alanine amino transferase (ALT) and aspartate amino transferase (AST).
Inner circular layer and outer longitudinal layer.
Glucose or lipids.
2 amino acids.
<p>Amino acids</p>
The liver.
Nucleotides.
They are enzymes that break down sugars.
The breakdown of food in a single-chambered stomach.
It is typically diagnosed through imaging studies like ultrasound or CT scan.
Gastric Chief Cells.
Mandibular gland.
A hormone involved in the digestive process.
The duodenum.
It aids in the transport and absorption of digested fat products.
A hormone that stimulates the digestion of fats and proteins.
Taurochenodeoxycholic or Glycochenodeoxycholic acids.
Secretion of hydrochloric acid (HCl).
Fat-soluble vitamins.
Entry of air into the gastrointestinal tract.
Trypsin.
N-terminal amino acid.
It further breaks down food using acids and enzymes.
In the cardia of the stomach.
Absorption of nutrients and further digestion.
The presence of chyme in the duodenum.
Fatty acids & Glycerol.
Carboxy terminal amino acids that have aromatic or aliphatic side chains.
To cleave proteins into short peptides and amino acids.
Animals without a gall bladder include certain species like some domestic animals.
Chyme in the duodenum.
Shape and size.
Diverse natural toxins.
Cardia, fundus, and the first third of the body of the stomach.
By transporting food to the esophagus.
Lactose.
Entero-peptidase.
It is converted into bicarbonate (HCO3-) and protons (H+).
It raises blood sugar levels when they are too low.
Nucleotides.
Bilirubin.
Nucleic acids.
α-limit dextrin.
Water.
Gastrin and HCl.
Starch.
Maltose.
Nucleotides.
By secreting enzymes into the small intestine to aid in the breakdown of food.
Trypsin.
Polypeptides.
<img src="https://gkfeqerieuvmtwfjnifi.supabase.co/storage/v1/object/public/tiptap-images/877d009c-5fe7-40c8-9f1b-e02795030cc1/9TFeQsUy0G3gid3KdlfO8td1.png" data-width="100%" data-align="center"><p></p>
They neutralize acid.
To regulate blood sugar levels.
Prolipase.
Storage and retention of ingested food.
It decreases gastric motility.
27 amino acids.
Carbonic acid (H2CO3).
Glucose and fructose.
It binds to Vitamin B12 to protect it from gastric and intestinal digestion.
Hydrochloric acid (HCl).
Nucleic acids.
Peptide bonds adjacent to Arginine or Lysine.
Intestinal digestive enzymes.
DNA.
It enhances insulin release.
T. mucosa, T. submucosa, T. muscularis, T. serosa.
Triglycerides.
Gastrin and HCl.
Fatty acids and monoglycerides.
They are one of the components of bile.
Contraction of the gall bladder.
It helps maintain pH balance and is exchanged for chloride ions.
Intestinal digestive enzymes (carbohydrases).
Herbivores.
The conversion of casein to paracasein.
Lingual papillae such as circumvallate and foliate.
8 amino acids.
Triglycerides.
Nucleotides.
Trypsin.
Sodium (Na), Potassium (K), Chloride (Cl), Calcium (Ca), and Bicarbonate (HCO3).
Only in young ruminants.
Carnivores.
Vitamins A, D, E, and K.
<img src="https://gkfeqerieuvmtwfjnifi.supabase.co/storage/v1/object/public/tiptap-images/877d009c-5fe7-40c8-9f1b-e02795030cc1/Ylib-ddq4U1uYdXs5g5W8nWQ.png" data-width="100%" data-align="center"><p></p>
<p>Here’s a breakdown of the three types of digestive systems: <strong>monogastrics</strong>, <strong>ruminants</strong>, and <strong>hindgut fermenters</strong>:</p><p>1. <strong>Monogastrics</strong></p><p>- <strong>Definition</strong>: Monogastric animals have a single-chambered stomach.</p><p>- <strong>Digestive Process</strong>: Food is broken down primarily by stomach acids and enzymes. Digestion is relatively quick compared to other systems.</p><p>- <strong>Examples</strong>: Pigs, dogs, humans.</p><p>- <strong>Diet</strong>: These animals typically consume concentrated foods such as grains and meat, which are easier to digest in a single stomach.</p><p>2. <strong>Ruminants</strong></p><p>- <strong>Definition</strong>: Ruminants have a complex, multi-chambered stomach, usually with four compartments: the rumen, reticulum, omasum, and abomasum.</p><p>- <strong>Digestive Process</strong>: They rely on microbial fermentation in the rumen to break down fibrous plant material like cellulose. After initial digestion, they regurgitate and re-chew food (cud), allowing for more complete nutrient extraction.</p><p>- <strong>Examples</strong>: Cattle, sheep, goats.</p><p>- <strong>Diet</strong>: These animals primarily consume fibrous plants such as grasses and hay, which are broken down slowly by microbial fermentation.</p><p>3. <strong>Hindgut Fermenters</strong></p><p>- <strong>Definition</strong>: Hindgut fermenters have a single stomach, but their primary digestion of fibrous plant material occurs in the large intestine and cecum, rather than the stomach.</p><p>- <strong>Digestive Process</strong>: Food passes quickly through the stomach and small intestine, with microbial fermentation occurring in the large intestine and cecum to break down fibrous plant material.</p><p>- <strong>Examples</strong>: Horses, rabbits, guinea pigs.</p><p>- <strong>Diet</strong>: These animals primarily consume fibrous plants and vegetation, but digestion of cellulose occurs in the hindgut rather than in a fore-stomach like ruminants.</p><p>In summary, monogastrics digest food with a single stomach, ruminants ferment food in a multi-chambered stomach, and hindgut fermenters rely on microbial digestion in their large intestines or cecum.</p>
<p>It consists of four main layers: tunica mucosa (innermost), tunica submucosa, tunica muscularis, and serosa (outermost).</p>
<p>Lumen</p>
<p>To receive food. Initial site of mastication </p>
<p>Incisors, Canines, Premolars, molars</p><p>frontal = incisors and canines</p><p>Back = premolars and molars</p>
<p>By increasing the surface area for chemical and microbial digestion of food.</p><p>= In Some species of animals, they have enzymes that can initially digest food in the oral cavity </p>
A prehensile organ.
<p>Sweet, sour, salty, bitter, umami</p>
<p>Hard palate and soft palate</p>
<p>They have large papillae that aid in mastication and they play a large role in protecting the cheek mucosa from any rough feeds or roughage that are consumed by ruminants </p>
<p>Parotid (base of the ear), mandibular, zygomatic, sublingual</p>
<p>labial, buccal, lingual, palatine, zygomatic</p>
Buccal glands.
It provides water-holding capacity and makes them resistant to proteolysis, which is important for mucosal barriers.
<p>When the mucin excreted by the salivary glands mixes with water</p>
<p>Mucous is important as it coats the oral mucosa, protecting it from proteolysis </p>
<p>Serous acinus which are responsible for the production of the serous type of saliva</p>
<p>Hazy appearance of the cytoplasm due to the presence of mucin</p>
Sublingual gland.
<p>Serous demilune cells</p>
<p>Lubricates food, protects oral mucosa (by forming a mucous barrier), and controls the viscosity of saliva.</p>
<p>Lingual lipase is an enzyme that digests milk fats to free fatty acids and diacylglycerol, and and is present in suckling calves (still feeding with milk)</p>
<p>The capacity of the salivary glands to produce lingual lipase disappears </p>
<p>Maltose, maltotriose, and α limit dextrins are formed through the hydrolysis of the 1:4 α linkages</p>
<p>Initial break down of milk fats in the mouth.</p>
<p>1. lubricates food</p><p>2. forms food boluses</p><p>3. facilitates swallowing</p><p>4. oral hygiene</p><p>5. solubilizes dry food</p><p>6. digestive function</p><p>7. evaporative cooling effect</p>
<p>The airway is closed off to prevent aspiration.</p><p>When swallowing food, the epiglottis closes off in order to prevent the entry of food in the trachea</p><p>During normal respiration, the epiglottis serves as a gate in order to block the entry of air into the esophagus, so when the animal inspires, the air is directed into the trachea</p>
<p>The upper esophageal sphincters and the lower esophageal sphincter </p><p>= To regulate the transport of food </p>
<p>It is relaxed or open hence allowing food to pass through the esophagus</p><p>When they are not eating, it is closed and constricted</p>
<img src="https://gkfeqerieuvmtwfjnifi.supabase.co/storage/v1/object/public/tiptap-images/877d009c-5fe7-40c8-9f1b-e02795030cc1/GNLNJxmtDi7cGPLe5S5_w1gh.png" data-width="100%" data-align="center"><p>Left pic = monogastric animals </p><p>E= main body of the stomach</p><p>C= cardiac region</p><p>F= fundic region</p><p>P= pyloric region </p><p>SI = small intestine</p><p></p>
Mucus neck cells.
<ol class="tight" data-tight="true"><li><p>Mucus neck cells</p></li><li><p>Chief or zymogen cells</p></li><li><p>Parietal or oxyntic cells</p></li><li><p>Gastrin-secreting or G cells</p></li></ol><p></p>
<ol class="tight" data-tight="true"><li><p>Gastrin-34 (with 34 amino acids = longest)</p></li><li><p>Gastrin-17</p></li><li><p>Gastrin-14</p></li></ol><p></p>
<p>Gastric and duodenal ulcerations.</p><p>Since gastrin promotes parietal cell secretion of hydrochloric acid, there would be an excessive production of hydrochloric acid which can result to ulcerations in the stomach</p><p>These gastric juices together together with food forms chime and it spills over to the duodenum, hence, its acidic condition would can lead to duodenal ulcerations </p>
<p>When gastrin binds to the gastrin receptors in the parietal cells, this will stimulate the parietal cells to produce HCl (hydrochloric acid). The source of H ions comes from the dissociation of H2CO3 (carbonic acid) into H+ and HCO3 (bicarbonate). The bicarbonate ions are transported back to the blood plasma while the H ions are transported together with Cl to undergo coupling or binding in the parietal cells to form HCl in the lumen. HCl then binds with water in the gastic lumen to form the components of the gastric juices<br><br></p><img src="https://gkfeqerieuvmtwfjnifi.supabase.co/storage/v1/object/public/tiptap-images/877d009c-5fe7-40c8-9f1b-e02795030cc1/xDzYXFsSX6BiXqd7QicYpc7P.png" data-width="100%" data-align="center"><p></p>
<p>1. storage of food </p><p>2. mixing of food with gastric juice (allowing it to interact with the secretions for its digestion)</p><p>3. digestive function</p><p>4. slow emptying of food from stomach to small intestine - for proper digestion and absorption</p><p>5. protective function - acidity of gastric secretion pose a barrier to microbial invasion of GIT</p><p>6. absorption of Vitamin B12 (ileum) - Intrinsic factor: binds to Vitamin B12 to protect it from gastric & intestinal digestion</p>
