1 microbial world and you

Joseph Lister in the 1860s.

That microorganisms cause disease, using Koch's postulates.

CRISPR/Cas9.

The relationship between microbes and our lives.

Microbial fermentation for safe food supplies and the human microbiome helping to keep us healthy.

A group of microbes that lives in and on our bodies.

They recycle chemical elements such as carbon and nitrogen among soil, organisms, and the atmosphere.

They are used to treat sewage, clean pollutants, and control pests.

COVID-19, avian flu, MPOX, and diarrhea.

It is the survival of bacteria with antibiotic-resistance genes, leading to infections that are resistant to treatment.

They generally live harmlessly on skin or inside the nose.

It indicates a fungal infection causing skin problems.

Microbes help maintain environmental balance, aid in digestion, synthesize vitamins, and have commercial applications.

The microbiome refers to the collection of microbes that live stably in and on the human body.

Normal microbiota are the microbes that live in and on the human body and contribute to health.

Transient microbiota are microbes that are only temporarily present in the body and do not establish permanent residence.

Bacteria in our intestines, such as Escherichia coli, aid in digestion and synthesize essential vitamins.

Bacillus thuringiensis.

The idea that microorganisms might cause disease.

Robert Koch, studying anthrax.

A sequence of experimental steps for directly relating a specific microbe to a specific disease.

He developed the smallpox vaccine using cowpox material.

The protection from disease provided by vaccination or recovery from the disease itself.

It lost its ability to cause disease after being grown in the laboratory for long periods, but could still induce immunity.

It demonstrated that exposure to a milder disease could provide immunity against a more severe disease, smallpox.

Cowpox virus is closely related to smallpox virus and can induce immunity to both viruses.

Vaccine.

Jenner used cowpox virus to produce immunity against smallpox.

By removing scales from drying pustules of a mild smallpox case and inserting the powdered scales into the nose of the person to be protected.

The treatment of disease using chemical substances.

Chemicals produced naturally by bacteria and fungi that act against bacteria.

A chemotherapeutic agent called salvarsan, effective against syphilis.

Penicillin, discovered by Alexander Fleming.

It marked the beginning of the Second Golden Age of Microbiology and became widely used as an antibiotic.

Because they often affect normal host cells as well, leading to toxicity issues.

Drug resistance results from genetic changes in microbes that enable them to tolerate a certain amount of an antibiotic that would normally inhibit them.

Microbes may produce enzymes that inactivate antibiotics or undergo changes to their surface that prevent antibiotics from attaching or entering.

It indicates that some previously treatable bacterial infections may soon be impossible to treat with antibiotics.

They are used to solve drug resistance, identify viruses, and develop vaccines, as well as investigate industrial applications and roles of microorganisms in the environment.

Immunology and virology.

Fleming, Chain, Florey, Waksman, Enders, Weller, Robbins, Beadle, Tatum, and others.

Techniques for sequencing DNA.

The discovery of HIV.

Ferment sugars to alcohol.

Microbes help train the immune system to recognize which foreign invaders to attack and which to ignore.

Microbes are used in the synthesis of vitamins, organic acids, enzymes, alcohols, and drugs.

Microbes are used in the production of vinegar, sauerkraut, pickles, soy sauce, cheese, yogurt, bread, and alcoholic beverages.

He discovered the process by which microbes produce acetone and butanol, which became important for making cordite during World War I.

Soil microbes break down wastes and incorporate nitrogen gas from the air into organic compounds, recycling elements among soil, water, living organisms, and air.

It produces specialized enzymes that break down nori, the red algae used in sushi.

Through horizontal gene transfer from Zobellia galactanivorans, a marine bacterium that lives on the algae.

It gives a competitive advantage over other microbes that cannot use it as a food source.

Because the algae used in foods today is usually roasted or dried, killing any bacteria that may be present.

To determine the makeup of typical microbiota in various areas of the body and understand the relationship between changes in the microbiome and human diseases.

Launched in 2016 to expand our understanding of the role microbes play in different ecosystems, including soil, plants, aquatic environments, and the human body.

The realization that many microbes are essential and only a minority are pathogenic.

Microorganisms are found almost everywhere and play essential roles in ecosystems.

It indicates a bacterial infection.

A staph infection, not a spider bite.

A system that uses two names: a genus and a specific epithet.

Carolus Linnaeus established it in 1735.

The genus and the specific epithet.

The genus name is always capitalized.

The specific epithet follows the genus name and is not capitalized.

Staphylo- describes the clustered arrangement of the cells, and -coccus indicates they are shaped like spheres.

It indicates that E. coli lives in the colon or large intestine.

Bacteria, viruses, and other microbes.

Bacteria are classified as prokaryotes because their genetic material is not enclosed in a nuclear membrane.

Bacterial cells can be rodlike (bacillus), spherical (coccus), or spiral (corkscrew or curved).

Bacterial cell walls are largely composed of a carbohydrate and protein complex called peptidoglycan.

It honors public health microbiologist Daniel Salmon.

It refers to the organism being found in the intestines (entero-).

It indicates that the cells appear in chains (strepto-).

It indicates that the organism forms pus (pyo-).

It indicates that it is a fungus that uses sugar (saccharo-).

It refers to the yeast making beer (cerevisia).

It describes a tuftlike or paintbrush appearance microscopically.

It indicates that the organism produces a yellow pigment (chryso-).

It indicates a corkscrew shape (trypano-, borer; soma-, body).

It honors epidemiologist Oswaldo Cruz.

Bacteria have peptidoglycan in their cell walls, while archaea do not. Archaea are often found in extreme environments and are divided into groups such as methanogens, halophiles, and thermophiles.

Bacteria generally reproduce by dividing into two equal cells through a process called binary fission.

The three main groups of archaea are methanogens, extreme halophiles, and extreme thermophiles.

The primary component of fungal cell walls is chitin.

Fungi obtain nourishment by absorbing organic material from their environment.

Protozoa move by pseudopods, flagella, or cilia.

Algae are photosynthetic eukaryotes that can be unicellular or multicellular and have cell walls made of cellulose.

Euglena is a photosynthetic protozoan that uses light as a source of energy and carbon dioxide to produce sugars.

Mycelia are visible masses formed by molds, composed of long filaments called hyphae that absorb nutrients from the environment.

They produce oxygen and carbohydrates that are utilized by other organisms, including animals, thus playing an important role in the balance of nature.

Viruses contain a core made of either DNA or RNA, surrounded by a protein coat, and sometimes encased by a lipid membrane called an envelope.

Viruses can reproduce only by using the cellular machinery of other organisms.

The two major groups are flatworms and roundworms, collectively called helminths.

He devised a system that groups all organisms into three domains: Bacteria, Archaea, and Eukarya.

Hooke's discovery marked the beginning of the cell theory, which states that all living things are composed of cells.

Anton van Leeuwenhoek was probably the first to observe live microorganisms through magnifying lenses.

Koch's postulates are important for establishing a causal relationship between a microbe and a disease.

Pasteur's work influenced the understanding of microbial fermentation and the principles of vaccination, which influenced Lister and Koch.

Bacteriology is the study of bacteria; mycology is the study of fungi; parasitology is the study of parasites; immunology is the study of the immune system; virology is the study of viruses.

He discovered 'animalcules', which were later identified as bacteria and protozoa.

Many scientists believed that some forms of life could arise spontaneously from nonliving matter.

He filled two jars with decaying meat, one sealed and one unsealed, to show that maggots did not arise spontaneously.

Maggots appeared in the unsealed jar but not in the sealed jar, challenging the belief in spontaneous generation.

He claimed that microorganisms developed spontaneously from heated chicken broth and corn broth.

He suggested that microorganisms from the air entered Needham's solutions after boiling and showed that sealed nutrient fluids did not develop microbial growth.

Needham claimed that the 'vital force' necessary for spontaneous generation was destroyed by heat and kept out by the seals.

It opened up the previously 'invisible' world of microorganisms to scientific study and understanding.

The hypothesis of spontaneous generation.

Microbes are present in nonliving matter, such as air, liquids, and solids.

A long-necked flask with an S-shaped neck.

Microorganisms did not appear in the cooled solution, even after long periods.

Microbes are responsible for food spoilage, linking them to disease.

He proposed the concept of biogenesis, stating that living cells arise only from preexisting living cells.

Air does not create microbes; rather, microorganisms in the air contaminate nonliving matter.

It allowed air to pass into the flask while trapping airborne microorganisms, preventing contamination.

They were found to be contaminated with microbes after a few days.

They provided the basis for aseptic techniques to prevent microbial contamination.

Microbial life can be destroyed by heat and methods can be devised to block airborne microorganisms from nutrient environments.

Procedures that prevent contamination by unwanted microorganisms, standard in laboratory and medical practices.

Biogenesis, showing that microorganisms cannot originate from mystical forces in nonliving materials.

The idea of spontaneous generation, which suggested that life could arise from nonliving materials.

The period from 1857 to 1914 marked by rapid advances in microbiology, led by Pasteur and Koch.

The relationship between microorganisms and disease, particularly in spoilage prevention.

Established the germ theory of disease and developed methods for pure cultures.

Artemisinin, which inhibits the malaria parasite.

Aseptic surgery, pioneered by Joseph Lister using phenol to prevent infections.

Major milestones and discoveries in microbiology from 1857 to 1911.

It laid the foundation for modern microbiology and established key concepts in disease prevention and treatment.

Fermentation.

To reduce spoilage and kill potentially harmful bacteria in beverages.

40-day quarantines.

Parasitic worms attach to the host's tissues and absorb nutrients from the host's body, often causing harm in the process.

It is a symbol of the medical profession, possibly representing the removal of parasitic guinea worms.

The study of fungi, including medical, agricultural, and ecological branches.

Climatic and environmental changes, such as severe drought, have contributed to the increase in infections like Coccidioides immitis.

Rebecca Lancefield proposed classifying streptococci according to serotypes based on cell wall components.

Interferons inhibit the replication of viruses and have implications for treating viral diseases and cancer.

Quick identification allows for timely treatment of diseases caused by Streptococcus pyogenes, such as strep throat and scarlet fever.

Thiomargarita namibiensis, discovered in 1997, lives in mud on the African coast.

The study of viruses and their interactions with hosts.

He demonstrated that the tobacco mosaic virus (TMV) was fundamentally different from other microbes and could be crystallized like a chemical compound, facilitating the study of viral structure and chemistry.

The development of the electron microscope in the 1930s.

The study of the mechanisms by which microorganisms inherit traits.

Oswald Avery, Colin MacLeod, and Maclyn McCarty.

Conjugation.

A model for the structure and replication of DNA.

Messenger RNA (mRNA) and its role in protein synthesis and gene regulation in bacteria.

It allows scientists to study all of an organism's genes, identify their functions, and classify microorganisms based on genetic relationships.

A method that inserts recombinant DNA into bacteria or other microbes to produce large quantities of a desired protein.

Microorganisms play roles in nutrient cycling, food production, bioremediation, and as sources of antibiotics.

Microbes produce methane and ethanol that can be used as alternative fuels to generate electricity and power vehicles.

Martinus Beijerinck and Sergei Winogradsky.

The study of the relationship between microorganisms and their environment.

Carbon, nitrogen, oxygen, sulfur, and phosphorus.

Bacteria convert atmospheric nitrogen to a form available to plants and animals.

To remove undesirable materials and harmful microorganisms from sewage.

The use of microbes to clean up pollutants and toxic wastes.

Microbial insect control avoids harming the environment and does not leave toxic pollutants in the soil.

Bacteria convert organic materials in sewage into by-products like carbon dioxide, nitrates, and methane.

Practical applications of microbiology that have become more sophisticated over the years.

A revolutionary technique that expands the potential of microorganisms as biochemical factories.

A technique that involves inserting a missing gene or replacing a defective one in human cells.

Adenosine deaminase deficiency, Duchenne's muscular dystrophy, cystic fibrosis, and LDL-receptor deficiency.

Treating genetic diseases such as hemophilia, diabetes, and sickle cell disease.

To develop genetically altered strains of bacteria for frost protection and pest control, and to improve the quality of fruits and vegetables.

The ability of the body to ward off diseases.

A complex aggregation of microbes that can exist on solid surfaces or in liquid.

They can be beneficial by protecting mucous membranes and providing food for aquatic animals, or harmful by clogging pipes and causing infections.

Because the biofilm offers a protective barrier.

A disease that has recently appeared in a population or is increasing in incidence or geographic range.

The infection may be caused by bacteria in a biofilm, which are often resistant to antibiotics.

A biofilm is a dense, three-dimensional structure composed of bacteria that adhere to solid surfaces, forming a slimy layer.

Capsular material may help protect bacteria within biofilms and contribute to their resistance to antibiotics.

An infectious disease is one in which pathogens invade a susceptible host and carry out part of their life cycle inside the host, often resulting in disease.

Many believed infectious diseases were under control and that diseases like malaria would be eradicated through various measures.

EIDs are new or changing diseases that are increasing in incidence or have the potential to increase in the near future.

Factors include evolutionary changes in organisms, spread to new geographic regions, and increased human exposure due to ecological changes.

COVID-19 is a disease caused by the SARS-CoV-2 virus, first recognized in December 2019 in China.

The term 'corona' refers to the crown-like spikes on the surface of the virus.

COVID-19 has caused more than 6.5 million deaths worldwide, significantly more than previous outbreaks like SARS and MERS.

MPOX is a viral disease causing flu-like symptoms and a rash, transmitted human-to-human by prolonged direct contact.

The MPOX virus is found naturally in rodents and is endemic in 16 countries in west and central Africa.

A vaccine and effective chemotherapy are available for MPOX.

To kill bacteria in some alcoholic beverages and milk.

Zika virus disease is a mild disease usually presenting with fever, rash, and joint pain, spread by the bite of an infected Aedes mosquito and also through sexual transmission.

Severe birth defects in a fetus.

In 1947 in the Zika Forest of Uganda.

73% of the people became infected during the first Zika epidemic.

H1N1 influenza (swine flu) and avian influenza A (H5N1).

It was declared a pandemic by WHO in the same year.

They have the potential to change and gain the ability to spread easily between people.

Years of overuse and misuse of antibiotics have created environments where antibiotic-resistant bacteria thrive.

Methicillin-resistant S. aureus (MRSA) emerged in the 1980s and became endemic in many hospitals, posing a major threat.

C. difficile infections kill nearly 29,000 people a year, primarily in health care settings.

MDR-TB is caused by bacteria resistant to at least isoniazid and rifampicin, the most effective drugs against tuberculosis.

Andrea's infection was caused by MRSA, which is resistant to the B-lactam antibiotic prescribed, highlighting the issue of antibiotic resistance.

They create an environment where resistant bacteria survive.

Chlorine bleach, alcohol, ammonia, and hydrogen peroxide.

Ebola virus disease causes fever, hemorrhaging, and blood clotting in vessels.

It was understood to be close personal contact with infectious blood or other body fluids or tissue.

Over 28,000 people were infected, and over one-third of those infected died.

African fruit bats.

Antibiotic resistance, breakdown of public health measures, and use of microorganisms as weapons.

Viruses, bacteria, and protozoa.

It will explain how the body responds to microbial infection and how certain drugs combat microbial diseases.

Microbes play many beneficial roles, which will be discussed in the book.

Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus.

Healthcare-associated MRSA (HA-MRSA).

A genetically different strain of MRSA that emerged in the 1990s as a major cause of skin disease in the United States.

Through skin abrasions from environmental surfaces or other people.

It was isolated from her living room sofa.

Andrea's sister transferred the bacteria from her skin to the sofa.

A person can carry MRSA without being infected.

Living things too small to be seen with the unaided eye.

Microorganisms that are present in and on the body, needed to maintain good health.

A genus and a specific epithet.

Prokaryotic cells, which lack a nucleus.

Peptidoglycan.

Prokaryotic cells that lack peptidoglycan in their cell walls.

Eukaryotic organisms that include mushrooms, molds, and yeasts, most of which are multicellular.

By absorption or ingestion through specialized structures.

They produce oxygen and carbohydrates used by other organisms.

Noncellular entities that are parasites of cells, consisting of a nucleic acid core surrounded by a protein coat.

Multicellular animal parasites, including flatworms and roundworms.

The development of the cell theory, which states that all living things are composed of cells.

Anton van Leeuwenhoek, using a simple microscope in 1673.

The idea that living organisms could arise from nonliving matter.

That maggots appear on decaying meat only when flies can lay eggs on it.

That microorganisms could arise spontaneously from heated nutrient broth.

That they were due to microorganisms in the air entering his broth.

The concept of biogenesis, stating that living cells can arise only from preexisting cells.

Louis Pasteur in 1861.

The development of aseptic techniques to prevent contamination by microorganisms.

The First Golden Age of Microbiology.

That inoculation with cowpox material provides immunity to smallpox.

The discovery of penicillin's effectiveness against infections.

Synthetic drugs and antibiotics.

Alexander Fleming in 1928.

The study of bacteria.

The study of fungi.

The study of parasitic protozoa and worms.

They degrade dead plants and animals, recycling chemical elements for use by living organisms.

They decompose organic matter in sewage.

Processes that use bacteria to clean up toxic wastes.

Bacteria that cause diseases in insects are used as biological controls, which are specific for the pest and do not harm the environment.

Using microbes to make products such as foods and chemicals.

Important substances such as proteins, vaccines, and enzymes.

Using viruses to carry replacements for defective or missing genes into human cells.

Bacterial communities that form slimy layers on surfaces.

A new or changing disease showing an increase in incidence in the recent past or potential to increase in the near future.

Biotechnology

Virology

Molecular biology

Immunology

Microbial genetics

Microbial ecology

Molecular biology

Mycology

Bacteria

Mycobacterium tuberculosis

Have the same shape

A microorganism is inoculated into the animal.

The DNA resulting when genes of two different organisms are mixed.

Living cells can only arise from preexisting cells.

It is used as a natural pesticide.

It is used in baking and brewing.

Microorganisms can be used as food for humans, use carbon dioxide, provide nitrogen for plant growth, and are used in sewage treatment processes.

Bacteria decompose organic material and recycle elements.

The application of oil-degrading bacteria to an oil spill.

Some microbes do not require air.

E. coli was the first disease-causing bacterium identified by Koch.

The theory of biogenesis established that life arises from existing life, which supported the idea that microorganisms could cause disease.

They observed that infections were reduced with cleanliness and antiseptics, indicating a link between microbes and disease.

The genus name is capitalized and the specific epithet is lowercase, both italicized, e.g., Erwinia amylovora.

Examples include yogurt (fermented), bread (brewed), and vinegar (fermented).

Advancements in medicine and antibiotics led to a false sense of security about controlling infectious diseases.

The high prevalence of arthritis cases and the association with a skin rash and treatability with penicillin.

Lyme disease.

This period coincides with the peak activity of ticks, which transmit the disease.

Lister applied Pasteur's germ theory principles to surgical practices, using antiseptics to prevent infections.

Koch's work was essential for establishing specific pathogens as the cause of specific diseases.

The use of antibacterial soaps may contribute to antibiotic resistance and are not necessarily more effective than regular soap.