What is the term for bone formation?
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Osteogenesis.
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What is the term for bone formation?
Osteogenesis.
Which vertebra articulates with the skull?
C1.
What is a tuberosity?
A rough projection.
What does Figure 6-10a illustrate?
Bone growth at an epiphyseal cartilage.
What hormone is made in the kidneys and helps absorb calcium and phosphorus?
Calcitriol.
What vitamin is required for the synthesis of calcitriol?
Vitamin D3 (cholecalciferol).
What is the spinous process of the vertebra prominens?
It is the prominent spinous process of the seventh cervical vertebra (C7).
What are the main components of the vertebral arch?
Spinous process, transverse process, and articular processes.
What hormones stimulate osteoblasts?
Estrogens and androgens.
What is the vertebra prominens?
Cervical vertebra C7.
What are the cervical vertebrae labeled from C1 to C7?
They are the first seven vertebrae in the neck region.
What is bone remodeling?
The process by which the adult skeleton maintains itself by continually replacing mineral reserves and renewing bone matrix.
What is indicated by the arrows in the x-ray of Figure 6-10a?
Growing epiphyseal cartilages.
Why are calcium ions important?
They are vital to membranes, neurons, and muscle cells, especially heart cells.
What are the processes that allow for articulation between vertebrae?
Articular processes.
Which hormones stimulate bone growth?
Growth hormone and thyroxine.
What are fontanelles?
Areas of fibrous connective tissue (soft spots) in the infant skull.
How does the infant skull grow compared to the body?
It grows rapidly and is large compared to the body.
What is the function of intervertebral discs?
To absorb shocks between the vertebral bodies.
What role do bones play in calcium homeostasis?
Bones store calcium and other minerals.
What are intervertebral foramina?
Gaps between pedicles of adjacent vertebrae for nerve connections to the spinal cord.
What is the primary function of the coccyx?
It attaches ligaments and a constricting muscle of the anus.
Until what age do human bones continue to grow?
About age 25.
What happens immediately after a bone fracture?
The body initiates a healing response, including inflammation and blood clot formation.
What is the function of the ligamentum nuchae?
It is an elastic ligament that extends from C7 to the skull.
What is the role of calcitonin in calcium homeostasis?
It decreases calcium ion levels.
What are the primary curves of the spine?
Thoracic and Sacral Curves, present during fetal development.
What are bone markings?
Depressions or grooves along the bone surface.
How does Vitamin A affect bone health?
It stimulates osteoblast activity.
What is the function of the thoracic and sacral curves?
They accommodate internal organs.
What feature is prominent on the Axis (C2)?
A heavy spinous process.
What is the primary organic compound found in bone?
Collagen.
How many false ribs are there?
Five.
What is the function of red bone marrow?
It forms red blood cells and supplies nutrients to osteocytes.
What does Figure 7-4 illustrate?
Sectional Anatomy of the Skull.
How does exercise affect bone health?
Weight-bearing exercise stimulates osteoblasts to build bone.
What appears on x-rays when long bones mature?
An epiphyseal line.
What is the vertebral canal?
A structure formed by vertebral foramina that encloses the spinal cord.
What does the Atlas (C1) articulate with?
The occipital condyles of the skull.
Which minerals are found in small amounts that contribute to bone health?
Magnesium, fluoride, iron, and manganese.
What is the primary function of cranial bones?
To protect the brain.
What are the primary functions of compact bone?
To protect, support, and resist stress.
How are bones classified?
By shape and structure.
What happens to bones if deposition is greater than removal?
Bones get stronger.
What is the effect of parathyroid hormone (PTH) on osteoclasts?
Stimulates osteoclasts to release stored calcium ions from bone.
What is the neck of the rib?
The short area between the head and the tubercle.
What does the 2007 WHO Reference provide for girls aged 5 to 19?
Height-for-age percentiles.
What is the role of osteoblasts in bone health?
Osteoblasts are responsible for bone building.
What happens to epiphyseal cartilage when long bones stop growing after puberty?
It disappears.
What are the structural components of spongy bone?
Trabeculae, canaliculi, endosteum, and lamellae.
How do paranasal sinuses affect the skull?
They lighten the skull bones.
What feature is prominent in cervical vertebra C7?
Large transverse processes.
How many fused coccygeal vertebrae make up the mature coccyx?
Three to five fused coccygeal vertebrae.
Which hormones regulate calcium and phosphate levels?
Calcitonin and parathyroid hormone.
What is another name for the rib cage?
The thoracic cage.
What is the status of a bone fracture three weeks after the injury?
A hard callus forms as the bone begins to heal and stabilize.
What is the entrance to the sacral canal?
The sacral hiatus.
What are the four types of bone cells?
Osteoblasts, osteocytes, osteoclasts, and lining cells.
What fills the spaces between trabeculae in spongy bone?
Red bone marrow and yellow bone marrow.
What happens when there is more bone breakdown than building?
Bones become weak, leading to conditions like osteoporosis.
What is one function of the paranasal sinuses?
They drain into the nasal passages.
What is the function of canaliculi in spongy bone?
They open on the surface to facilitate nutrient exchange.
What structure is located on the lateral view of a thoracic vertebra?
Transverse process.
What are the main components of the axial skeleton?
The skull, vertebral column, and thoracic cage.
What is the significance of C1 and C2 in the cervical vertebrae?
C1 (Atlas) supports the skull, and C2 (Axis) allows for head rotation.
What are the superior and inferior articular processes?
They facilitate articulation between adjacent vertebrae.
What do facial bones protect?
The entrances to the respiratory and digestive systems.
What is the primary function of the sacrum?
It attaches the axial skeleton to the pelvic girdle of the appendicular skeleton.
What is a process in bone markings?
A projection or bump.
What is the role of hormones in bone growth?
Hormones regulate the processes of bone growth and maintenance.
What are the lateral and median sacral crests?
They are bony ridges on the sacrum that provide attachment points for muscles and ligaments.
What bones are included in the axial skeleton?
Skull, sternum, costal cartilages, cervical vertebrae, thoracic vertebrae, lumbar vertebrae, sacrum, coccyx, and ribs.
Which sutures are associated with the occipital fontanelle?
Lambdoid and sagittal sutures.
How does vertebra T12 compare to the first lumbar vertebra (L1)?
T12 resembles L1 but has a facet for rib articulation.
What is the function of the sternum in the axial skeleton?
It serves as a central point for rib attachment and protects the heart and lungs.
What is lordosis?
A condition characterized by an excessive inward curvature of the spine, often referred to as swayback.
What is the function of the transverse costal facet on thoracic vertebrae?
It articulates with the tubercle of the superior rib.
What dietary sources are important for bone health?
Calcium and phosphate salts.
How does Parathyroid Hormone (PTH) increase calcium ion levels?
By stimulating osteoclasts, increasing intestinal absorption of calcium, and decreasing calcium excretion at kidneys.
What are the main components of the thoracic cage?
Thoracic vertebrae, ribs, and sternum.
What are the unique features of the Atlas (C1)?
It has no body or spinous process and has a large, round foramen within anterior and posterior arches.
What unique features do the first two coccygeal vertebrae have?
They have transverse processes and unfused vertebral arches.
What is a notable feature of the infant skull regarding ossification?
It has many ossification centers.
What is the basic structural unit of compact bone?
Osteon.
What is the significance of the transverse process?
Serves as a point of attachment for muscles and ligaments.
What is the primary function of the vertebral column?
To protect the spinal cord.
What are the primary functions of the skeletal system?
Support, protection, movement, mineral storage, and blood cell production.
What is the function of the axial skeleton?
To support the head, protect the brain and spinal cord, and provide attachment points for ribs and muscles.
How many bones make up the vertebral column?
26 bones.
How can bones be classified?
According to shape and internal organization.
Which vertebra articulates with the sacrum?
L5.
What is the primary function of cervical vertebrae?
Support the head and allow for a range of motion.
How do sex hormones affect bone health?
They promote bone growth and help maintain bone density.
What types of elements are present in the infant skull?
Several sphenoidal and temporal elements.
What is the anterior arch of the atlas?
The front part of the first cervical vertebra (C1).
What connects the vertebral body to the vertebral arch?
Pedicle.
What is the function of the vertebral body (centrum)?
Transfers weight along the spine.
What is scoliosis?
A condition characterized by an abnormal lateral curvature of the spine.
What do osteoclasts do as bones mature?
They enlarge the medullary (marrow) cavity.
What role do paranasal sinuses play in sound?
They amplify sounds.
What occurs three days after a bone fracture?
Inflammation continues, and a soft callus begins to form around the fracture site.
What triggers the parathyroid glands to secrete parathyroid hormone (PTH)?
When blood calcium ion concentrations decrease below 8.5 mg/dL.
What is the primary function of the Axis (C2)?
It supports the atlas.
What components make up the skeletal system?
Bones, cartilages, ligaments, and connective tissues.
How many true ribs are there?
Seven.
What is the vertebral body of a thoracic vertebra?
The large, anterior portion that supports weight.
What is the significance of the skull in the axial skeleton?
It houses and protects the brain and supports facial structures.
What are the secondary curves of the spine?
Lumbar and Cervical Curves, which appear after birth.
What is the function of tunnels in bones?
They allow blood and nerves to enter the bone.
What is the role of osteoclasts?
They break down bone tissue.
What do the sacral cornu and coccygeal cornu represent?
They are bony projections that articulate with the coccyx.
What is the base of the sacrum called?
Base.
What is the sequence of long bone formation?
It involves the processes of ossification and remodeling.
What is the function of the transverse costal facet on a rib?
It articulates with the tubercle of the rib.
What function of the skeletal system allows for movement?
It provides attachment points for muscles.
What percentage of bone is made up of phosphate?
17%.
What is the mechanism of bone formation?
Involves processes like ossification and mineralization.
What does Table 7-1 illustrate?
Regional differences in vertebral structure and function.
What is the most abundant mineral in the body?
Calcium.
What does the cervical vertebra C7 transition to?
Thoracic vertebrae.
What are the true ribs?
Ribs 1–7.
What is one of the primary functions of spongy bone?
To provide support and store marrow.
What is the role of the spinous process?
Provides attachment for muscles and ligaments.
What structural feature distinguishes spongy bone from compact bone?
Spongy bone does not have osteons.
What is the function of fontanelles in infants?
They allow the skull to flex during birth.
What is the head (capitulum) of the rib?
The vertebral end of the rib, which has superior and inferior articular facets.
What are the names of the first two cervical vertebrae?
Atlas (C1) and Axis (C2).
What sutures are associated with the anterior fontanelle?
Frontal, sagittal, and coronal sutures.
What is one of the primary functions of the skeletal system?
Support.
What is ossification?
The process of replacing other tissues with bone.
Which hormones are primarily involved in bone maintenance?
Hormones such as parathyroid hormone, calcitonin, and sex hormones.
What is the orientation of the thoracic vertebrae in Figure 7-20b?
Superior view.
What does the axial skeleton form?
The longitudinal axis of the body.
What does yellow bone marrow primarily consist of?
Fat.
What are the major types of bone cells?
Osteoblasts, osteocytes, and osteoclasts.
What is the function of the superior costal facet on the thoracic vertebra?
It articulates with the ribs.
What are the components shown in Figure 7-21a?
The lumbar vertebrae, sacrum, and coccyx.
What is the function of parathyroid hormone in bone health?
It increases blood calcium levels by stimulating bone resorption.
What are the inferior and superior articular processes responsible for?
They facilitate the articulation between adjacent vertebrae.
What is the role of costal cartilages in the axial skeleton?
They connect the ribs to the sternum, allowing for flexibility and movement during breathing.
What do thoracic vertebrae articulate with?
One or more pairs of ribs.
What are the three parts of the sternum?
Manubrium, sternal body, and xiphoid process.
What is the major component of a typical vertebra?
Vertebral body.
What is kyphosis?
A condition characterized by an excessive outward curvature of the spine, leading to a hunchback appearance.
What is a notable feature of cervical vertebra C7?
It has a long spinous process with a broad tubercle.
What is the function of osteoclasts?
Osteoclasts are responsible for bone recycling.
What hormone is produced by the parathyroid glands to regulate calcium levels?
Parathyroid Hormone (PTH).
What is the primary function of the axial skeleton?
To support the head, neck, and trunk, and protect the brain and spinal cord.
How many cervical vertebrae are there?
There are seven cervical vertebrae (C1 to C7).
What are intervertebral discs?
Fibrocartilage pads that separate the vertebral bodies and absorb shocks.
What are the false ribs?
Ribs 8–12.
What is the endosteum?
A thin membrane lining the inner surface of bones, including spongy bone.
Which cells are involved in bone remodeling?
Osteocytes, osteoblasts, and osteoclasts.
What forms around blood vessels in compact bone?
Osteons.
What is the function of the articular process in the sacrum?
It connects the sacrum to the lumbar vertebrae.
What are lamellae in the context of spongy bone?
Concentric layers of bone tissue that provide structural support.
What is calcification?
The process of depositing calcium salts.
How many fontanelles are present at birth?
Four fontanelles.
What does the thoracic cage protect?
The organs of the thoracic cavity.
What changes occur three months after a bone fracture?
The bone continues to remodel and strengthen, returning to its normal shape and function.
During which processes does calcification occur?
During bone ossification and in other tissues.
What do elevations or projections on bones indicate?
They are where tendons and ligaments attach or at articulations with other bones.
How many sacral vertebrae make up the adult sacrum?
Five sacral vertebrae fused together.
How does PTH affect intestinal absorption of calcium?
Increases the rate of intestinal absorption of calcium.
What is the vertebra prominens?
C7, which resembles T1 but lacks facets for rib articulation.
What is a ramus?
An extension of a bone that forms an angle with the rest of the structure.
What forms the protective structure around the spinal cord in a vertebra?
Vertebral arch.
What are the common types of spinal deformities?
Kyphosis, lordosis, and scoliosis.
How are vertebrae numbered in the vertebral column?
By region, from top (superior) to bottom (inferior).
What role does Vitamin C play in bone health?
It is required for collagen synthesis and stimulation of osteoblast differentiation.
What do the superior and inferior costal facets on thoracic vertebrae articulate with?
They articulate with the heads of the ribs.
What are the main functions of facial bones?
They protect and support the entrances to the digestive and respiratory tracts.
What role does the axial skeleton play in relation to body cavities?
It supports and protects organs in body cavities.
How does calcitonin decrease calcium ion levels?
By inhibiting osteoclast activity and increasing calcium excretion at kidneys.
What do cranial bones surround and protect?
The brain.
What is the function of the dens of the axis (C2)?
It acts as a pivot for the rotation of the atlas (C1).
What hormone is secreted by the thyroid gland in response to high calcium levels?
Calcitonin.
What is the significance of the 3rd percentile in the height-for-age chart?
It indicates the height below which 3% of the population falls.
How does the size of the male cranium compare to the female cranium?
The male cranium is about 10% larger.
What type of cell is an osteogenic cell?
A stem cell whose divisions produce osteoblasts.
What is the role of the spinous process on the Axis (C2)?
To attach muscles of the head and neck.
What is the function of the cervical curvature?
To support the head and allow for a range of motion.
What are the two layers of the periosteum?
An outer fibrous layer and an inner cellular layer.
What is a foramen?
A rounded passageway for blood vessels and/or nerves.
What is the role of an osteoblast?
An immature bone cell that secretes osteoid, the organic component of bone matrix.
What is a demifacet on a rib?
A surface that allows articulation with the head of a rib.
What organs does the sacrum help protect?
Reproductive, urinary, and digestive organs.
What are the remodeling and homeostatic mechanisms of the skeletal system?
Processes that maintain bone strength and mineral balance.
What are the main sutures present in an infant's skull?
Coronal suture, lambdoid suture, sagittal suture, and frontal suture.
What is the position of the sacrum in relation to the lumbar vertebrae?
The sacrum is located below the lumbar vertebrae.
What is a distinctive feature of the spinous processes in cervical vertebrae?
They are short with a notched tip (bifid).
What type of cells are responsible for bone formation?
Osteoblasts.
How many ribs are in the adult axial skeleton?
24 ribs.
What are the two additional components of the vertebral column besides the cervical, thoracic, and lumbar vertebrae?
The sacrum and the coccyx.
What is the role of coccygeal vertebrae?
Form the tailbone and provide attachment for ligaments and muscles.
Where are the auditory ossicles located?
In the middle ear.
How many axial bones are there in total?
80 axial bones.
What makes up the remaining 1/3 of the bone matrix?
Protein fibers, primarily collagen.
What is the role of the spinous process in thoracic vertebrae?
It serves as an attachment point for muscles and ligaments.
How many vertebrae are typically found in the human vertebral column?
33 vertebrae.
What forms the matrix of spongy bone?
An open network of trabeculae.
What are the regions of the vertebral column?
Cervical (C), Thoracic (T), Lumbar (L), Sacral (S), Coccygeal (Co).
What are the main components of the axial skeleton?
The skull, vertebral column, and thoracic cage.
What triggers the responses that decrease blood calcium levels?
When blood calcium ion concentrations increase above 11 mg/dL.
Which vitamins help synthesize bone proteins?
Vitamins K and B12.
What is the role of osteoblasts?
They are responsible for bone formation.
What is the anatomical term for the tailbone?
Coccyx.
Name a bone that is part of the facial bones.
Maxilla.
What structure connects the atlas and axis?
The transverse ligament.
What effect does calcitonin have on osteoclasts?
Calcitonin inhibits osteoclasts.
What shape are the bodies of the thoracic vertebrae (T1-T12)?
Heart-shaped.
What are the thoracic vertebrae numbered from?
T1 to T12.
How many bones are in the axial skeleton?
80 bones.
How do the lumbar vertebrae compare in size to the thoracic vertebrae?
They are the largest vertebrae with thicker bodies than T1 to T12.
What distinguishes the lumbar vertebrae from other regions?
They are larger and designed to bear more weight.
How many bones are in the adult axial skeleton?
80 bones.
What is the significance of the intervertebral foramen?
It allows for the passage of spinal nerves.
Which hormones are related to calcium homeostasis?
Parathyroid hormone (PTH) and calcitonin.
What is the role of the transverse process in thoracic vertebrae?
It serves as an attachment point for muscles and ligaments.
What are the paired cranial bones?
Parietal and temporal bones.
What is the angle of a rib?
The point where the rib begins to curve.
What is the primary composition of the solid matrix produced by bone tissue?
Calcium salt deposits.
What does the neck refer to in bone anatomy?
A narrow connection between the epiphysis and diaphysis.
What is the total number of vertebrae in the adult axial skeleton?
26 vertebrae.
What muscles does the xiphoid process attach to?
Diaphragm and rectus abdominis muscles.
In which direction do the inferior articular processes of lumbar vertebrae face?
Down and out.
What is the name of the bone that forms the bridge of the nose?
Nasal bone.
What is the transverse costal facet's role in thoracic vertebrae?
It articulates with the tubercle of the rib.
What is the body of a rib?
The long, curved portion of the rib.
Which bone is located at the side of the skull and contains the ear?
Temporal bone.
What is the name of the suture located at the back of the skull?
Lambdoid suture.
What is a crest in bone anatomy?
A prominent ridge.
How many parietal bones are present in the adult skull?
Two (right and left).
What does the thoracic cage articulate with?
The vertebrae.
Where is calcitonin secreted?
In the thyroid gland.
What is the role of the thoracic cage?
To protect the heart and lungs and support the upper body.
Is the fusion of the infant skull complete at birth?
No, fusion is not complete at birth.
What occurs if removal of bone is faster than replacement?
Bones get weaker.
What muscles attach to the thoracic cage?
Intercostal muscles, muscles of the pectoral girdle, and trunk.
How many frontal bones does an infant skull have?
Two frontal bones.
What role do kidneys play in response to low calcium levels?
Kidneys retain calcium ions and decrease calcium loss in urine.
What respiratory function does the axial skeleton perform?
It performs respiratory movements.
What is the periosteum?
A dense, supportive connective tissue that covers the outer surfaces of bones.
How many bones does the sternum consist of at birth?
Four bones.
Which bone is known as the 'vomer'?
A bone that is part of the facial structure.
What is a notable difference in the forehead appearance between males and females?
Males have a more sloping forehead, while females have a more vertical forehead.
How does calcitonin affect osteoblast activity?
Osteoblasts continue to lock calcium ions in the bone matrix.
What is the threshold for low calcium ion levels in blood?
Below 8.5 mg/dL.
What is the primary function of bones in the musculoskeletal system?
To provide structure and support to the body.
How do the sinuses differ between male and female skulls?
Males have larger sinuses compared to females.
What is scoliosis?
A condition involving an abnormal lateral curvature of the spine.
What are the distinctive characteristics of thoracic vertebrae?
They have facets for rib articulation and are less mobile than cervical vertebrae.
What are the superior articular facets?
They are surfaces on the vertebrae that articulate with the inferior articular processes of the vertebra above.
What is the significance of the sacrum in the axial skeleton?
It forms the back part of the pelvis and connects the spine to the hip bones.
What are the sacral cornu?
The bony projections that articulate with the coccyx.
What does the manubrium articulate with?
Clavicles (collarbones) and cartilages of the first rib pair.
How does the mandible differ between males and females?
The male mandible is larger and more robust, while the female mandible is smaller and less robust.
What is unique about the C1 vertebra (atlas)?
It has no spinous process.
Which suture is located at the back of the skull?
Lambdoid suture.
What is the composition of the bone matrix in terms of calcium phosphate?
2/3 of the bone matrix is calcium phosphate, Ca3(PO4)2.
Which bone is referred to as the greater wing of the sphenoid?
Greater wing of sphenoid.
How many vertebrae are in the vertebral column?
24 vertebrae.
What is the auricular surface?
The surface of the sacrum that articulates with the ilium of the pelvis.
What is the vertebral end of the rib?
The end of the rib that connects to the thoracic vertebrae.
What is the function of the inferior articular facet in a lumbar vertebra?
It articulates with the superior articular facet of the vertebra below.
What is the function of the transverse process?
It serves as an attachment point for muscles and ligaments and provides leverage for movement.
How are osteocytes arranged in compact bone?
In concentric lamellae.
How does the axial skeleton interact with muscles?
It attaches to muscles of the head, neck, and trunk.
What is the primary function of the cervical vertebrae?
To support the head.
What are the curvatures of the spinal column?
Cervical, thoracic, lumbar, sacral, and coccygeal curvatures.
How many pairs of ribs are there in the human body?
12 pairs.
How many cervical vertebrae are in the neck?
7 cervical vertebrae.
What is the percentage of calcium in bone?
39%.
What is the function of perforating canals in compact bone?
They are perpendicular to the central canal and carry blood vessels into bone and marrow.
What is the lateral sacral crest?
A prominent ridge on the lateral aspect of the sacrum.
Which sutures are associated with the mastoid fontanelles?
Squamous and lambdoid sutures.
What structure is located at the top of the sacrum?
Sacral promontory.
How many cranial bones are there in the skull?
8 cranial bones.
How many lumbar vertebrae are there?
Five (L1 to L5).
What is the role of the nasal bone?
It is part of the facial structure.
How is age represented in the 2007 WHO Reference height-for-age chart?
In completed months and years.
What is the effect of calcitonin on the kidneys?
The kidneys allow calcium loss and excrete more calcium.
Which thoracic vertebrae are labeled in the figure?
T1, T2, T3, T4, T5, T6, T7, T8, T9, T10, T11, T12.
What is the angle of a rib?
The point where the rib begins to curve.
How do ribs at T1 to T10 articulate?
They contact costal and transverse costal facets.
What are false ribs?
Ribs 8-12 that do not attach directly to the sternum.
What is the role of osteoclasts in bone health?
They break down bone tissue.
Which fontanelle is located at the back of an infant's skull?
Posterior fontanelle.
What is the sacral promontory?
The anterior projecting edge of the first sacral vertebra.
What is the name of the suture found on the side of the skull?
Squamous suture.
What is the vertebral body?
The large, cylindrical part of the vertebra that bears weight.
What is the inferior articular facet?
It is a surface that articulates with the superior articular facet of the vertebra below.
What is the coccyx?
The small, triangular bone at the base of the vertebral column.
What is the role of the sternum in the axial skeleton?
It serves as a central point for rib attachment.
What nutritional factors are important for bone development?
Calcium and vitamin D.
What are the four sutures of the adult skull?
Coronal, sagittal, lambdoid, and squamous sutures.
Which bone is located at the back of the skull?
Occipital bone.
How many vertebral regions are there?
5 vertebral regions.
What are true ribs?
Ribs that attach directly to the sternum (first seven pairs).
How many vertebrae are in the cervical region?
7 vertebrae.
What is the function of the tubercle (tuberculum) of the rib?
It has an auricular facet that contacts the facet of its thoracic vertebra (at T1 – T10 only).
At what age does the fusion of sacral vertebrae typically occur?
Between puberty and ages 25–30.
How many occipital bones are present in an infant skull?
Four occipital bones.
What is the tubular body (shaft) of the rib responsible for?
It attaches muscles of the pectoral girdle and trunk and intercostal muscles that move the ribs.
What is unique about the vertebral foramen in cervical vertebrae?
It is large, accommodating the largest part of the spinal cord.
What height range corresponds to the 50th percentile for girls aged 10 years?
Typically around 140 cm, but specific values depend on the chart.
What are the two main divisions of the human skeleton?
Axial skeleton and appendicular skeleton.
What is the sacral tuberosity?
A roughened area on the sacrum for ligament attachment.
What structure is located between the vertebral body and the spinous process?
Lamina.
What happens to the rate of intestinal absorption of calcium when blood calcium levels are high?
The rate of intestinal absorption of calcium decreases.
What shape are the bodies of the lumbar vertebrae?
Oval-shaped.
What is the size of the vertebral foramen in thoracic vertebrae compared to cervical vertebrae?
Thoracic vertebrae have smaller vertebral foramen than cervical vertebrae.
What is the function of the malleus?
It transmits sound vibrations from the eardrum to the incus.
What is the difference in teeth size between male and female skulls?
Males have larger teeth, while females have smaller teeth.
What type of marrow is responsible for lipid storage?
Yellow marrow.
How do sacral vertebrae differ from other vertebrae?
They are fused to form the sacrum.
What happens to calcium levels in blood as a result of these responses?
Calcium levels in blood decrease.
Which bone is referred to as the 'mandible'?
The lower jawbone.
What is a canal in the context of bone markings?
A duct or channel.
What is the role of the intervertebral disc?
It acts as a cushion between vertebrae, allowing for movement and absorbing shock.
What are floating ribs?
Ribs 11-12 that do not attach to the sternum.
What are the articular facets on a rib used for?
They are the surfaces that articulate with the vertebrae.
Which thoracic vertebrae articulate with one pair of ribs?
T9 to T11.
How many bones are in the skull?
29 bones.
What is the role of the spinous process in a vertebra?
It serves as an attachment point for muscles and ligaments.
What is the superior articular facet?
The surface that articulates with the inferior articular facet of the vertebra above.
How many bones are in the thoracic cage?
25 bones.
What do the superior articular processes do?
They help form joints with the vertebrae above.
What is the lateral view of the mandible?
A side view of the lower jawbone.
What is the mental foramen?
An opening in the mandible that allows nerves and blood vessels to pass.
What is the function of an osteocyte?
It is a mature bone cell that maintains the bone matrix.
What percentage of bone composition is inorganic?
67%.
What is kyphosis?
A condition characterized by an excessive outward curvature of the spine, leading to a hunchback appearance.
What is a sinus in bone markings?
A chamber within a bone, normally filled with air.
What sutures are associated with the sphenoidal fontanelles?
Squamous and coronal sutures.
How does the axial skeleton contribute to the stability of the appendicular skeleton?
It stabilizes parts of the appendicular skeleton.
How many thoracic vertebrae are there?
12 thoracic vertebrae (T1 – T12).
What is the structure at the sternal end of a rib called?
Costal cartilage.
At what age does the sternum complete fusion?
About age 25.
What is the function of the superior articular process in lumbar vertebrae?
It helps form joints with adjacent vertebrae.
What minerals are stored in the skeletal system?
Calcium.
What does a fissure refer to in bone markings?
A deep furrow, cleft, or slit.
What are the lateral extensions of the sacrum known as?
Ala.
What part of the rib is referred to as the tubercle?
The bony prominence that articulates with the transverse process of a thoracic vertebra.
What is the function of the costal groove in a rib?
It houses nerves and blood vessels.
What are common symptoms of scoliosis?
Uneven shoulders, one shoulder blade that appears more prominent, and uneven hips.
Which bone forms the forehead in an infant's skull?
Frontal bone.
What role does the stapes play in hearing?
It transmits sound vibrations from the incus to the inner ear.
What age range does the 2007 WHO Reference for Height-for-age cover?
Boys aged 5 to 19 years.
What does the neck of the rib refer to?
The section between the head and the tubercle.
What are the key percentiles included in the WHO Height-for-age reference?
3rd, 15th, 50th, 85th, and 97th percentiles.
What is a facet in terms of bone markings?
A small, flat articular surface.
What are canaliculi?
Small channels that connect osteocytes in bone.
What is the function of the inferior articular process in a vertebra?
It helps form joints with the vertebrae below.
What is the endosteum?
A thin membrane lining the medullary cavity.
What is a trochlea?
A smooth, grooved articular process shaped like a pulley.
Which bones are located in the nasal area of the adult skull?
Nasal bones.
What are the inferior articular processes?
They are projections that articulate with the superior articular facets of the vertebra below.
What is the significance of the vertebral foramen?
It allows for the passage of the spinal cord.
What are the two types of spinal curves?
Primary curves and secondary curves.
What is a key structural difference between vertebrae?
The size and shape vary depending on their location in the spine.
What is the function of the transverse process?
It provides leverage for muscles and ligaments.
What are false ribs?
Ribs that do not attach directly to the sternum (the last five pairs).
What is the role of the intervertebral disc?
It acts as a cushion between vertebrae and allows for movement.
What forms the dens during development?
The fusion of the bodies of the Axis and Atlas.
What does the central canal in compact bone contain?
Blood vessels.
What is the purpose of the lumbar and cervical curves?
They shift body weight for upright posture.
What anatomical feature replaces the vertebral canal in the sacrum?
The sacral canal.
What is the function of the spinous process in vertebral anatomy?
It serves as an attachment point for muscles and ligaments.
How many cervical vertebrae are in the axial skeleton?
Seven cervical vertebrae.
How does the curvature of the sacrum differ between males and females?
The sacrum is more curved in males than in females.
What is calcium homeostasis?
The regulation of calcium levels in the body.
What does the 97th percentile represent in the height-for-age data?
It indicates the height above which 3% of the population falls.
What is the median sacral crest?
A ridge formed by the fused spinous processes of the sacral vertebrae.
What role does calcitonin play in bone maintenance?
It helps lower blood calcium levels by inhibiting bone resorption.
What is the role of the transverse process in a vertebra?
It provides attachment for muscles and ligaments and serves as a lever for movement.
What is the purpose of the 2007 WHO Reference for Height-for-age?
To provide percentiles for boys aged 5 to 19 years based on height.
What is a head in bone markings?
An expanded articular end of an epiphysis, often separated from the shaft by a narrower neck.
What is the name of the suture that runs between the parietal bones?
Sagittal suture.
What is the function of the spinous process in vertebrae?
It serves as an attachment point for muscles and ligaments.
What is produced in red marrow?
Blood cells.
What does the sternal body attach to?
The manubrium and costal cartilages of ribs 2–7.
Which facial bone is unpaired?
Mandible and vomer.
What percentage of the body's magnesium is found in bone?
50%.
What is the pointed end of the sacrum called?
Apex.
What is the function of the superior articular facet in thoracic vertebrae?
It articulates with the inferior articular facet of the vertebra above.
Define condyle in bone markings.
A smooth, rounded articular process.
What is the function of the thoracic cage?
To protect the heart and lungs.
What is notable about the spinous processes of lumbar vertebrae?
They are short and heavy, providing attachment for lower back muscles.
What is the function of the inferior articular facet in vertebral anatomy?
It helps in the articulation between adjacent vertebrae.
What bones are connected by the coronal suture?
The frontal bone and the parietal bones.
What is the name of the fontanelle located near the mastoid process?
Mastoid fontanelle.
What is a line in bone markings?
A low ridge.
What does the sacral curve accommodate?
The abdominopelvic organs.
How does the skeletal system contribute to protection?
It protects vital organs.
What happens to calcium levels in blood when PTH is secreted?
Calcium levels in blood increase.
What are the auditory ossicles?
Small bones in the middle ear that aid in hearing.
What determines the characteristics of vertebrae in each region?
Their functions.
Describe the superior surface of cervical vertebrae.
It is concave.
How do the body sizes of thoracic vertebrae compare to cervical vertebrae (C1-C7)?
Thoracic vertebrae have larger bodies than cervical vertebrae.
What is the purpose of fontanelles in an infant's skull?
They allow for growth of the skull and flexibility during birth.
What is the posterior arch of the atlas?
The back part of the first cervical vertebra (C1).
What is the orientation of the cervical vertebrae?
They slope from posterior to anterior.
What is the name of the suture located at the front of the skull?
Coronal suture.
What is the role of the transverse process in lumbar vertebrae?
It serves as an attachment point for muscles and ligaments.
What percentage of the body's total calcium is found in bone?
99%.
What is the significance of the lacrimal bone?
It is part of the facial bones.
What is the vertebral foramen?
It is the opening that houses the spinal cord.
Which fontanelle is located at the front of an infant's skull?
Anterior fontanelle.
How can kyphosis affect posture?
It can lead to a hunched posture and may cause discomfort or pain.
What are the bones located on the sides of the skull called?
Parietal bones.
In which direction do the superior articular processes of lumbar vertebrae face?
Up and in.
What is the purpose of the spinous process in a lumbar vertebra?
It provides attachment for muscles and ligaments.
What is the percentage of carbonate in bone?
0.5%.
What is the characteristic of the transverse processes in lumbar vertebrae?
They are slender and project dorsolaterally.
What is the transition point from thoracic to lumbar vertebrae?
T10 to T12.
What hormones influence bone density?
Estrogen, testosterone, and parathyroid hormone.
What does the vertebral body support?
It supports the weight of the body.
What is the name of the lower jawbone in the skull?
Mandible.
What view is depicted in Figure 7-3a of the adult skull?
Posterior view.
What is the function of the pedicle in a vertebra?
It connects the vertebral body to the posterior elements.
What is the frontal bone?
The bone that forms the forehead and the upper part of the eye sockets.
Which bones are part of the adult skull?
Occipital bone, temporal bone, parietal bone, frontal bone.
What is the significance of the supraorbital foramen?
It allows the passage of nerves and blood vessels to the forehead.
What are the lumbar vertebrae designated as?
L1 to L5.
What type of bones are ribs classified as?
Long, curved, flat bones.
How many thoracic vertebrae are in the upper back?
12 thoracic vertebrae.
List two cranial bones.
Frontal bone and Occipital bone.
How many auditory ossicles are there?
Three: malleus, incus, and stapes.
Which ribs are known as true ribs?
Ribs 1-7.
How much potassium is found in bone?
0.2%.
What does an osteoclast do?
It is a multinucleate cell that secretes acids and enzymes to dissolve bone matrix.
Name the four types of bone cells.
Osteocytes, Osteoblasts, Osteoprogenitor/osteogenic cells, Osteoclasts.
What is a meatus?
A passage or channel, especially the opening of a canal.
What are the openings in the sacrum for nerve passage called?
Sacral foramina.
What is the vertebral body?
The large, cylindrical part of the vertebra that bears weight.
What is the coccyx commonly referred to as?
The tailbone.
What are the horizontal lines across the sacrum referred to as?
Transverse lines.
What is the tubercle of a rib?
A small bump that articulates with the vertebrae.
How many pairs of ribs do T1 to T8 articulate with?
Two pairs of ribs.
What do the costal facets on thoracic vertebrae articulate with?
Heads of ribs.
What is the function of the spinous process in lumbar vertebrae?
It provides attachment for muscles and ligaments.
What does the inferior articular process do in a lumbar vertebra?
It forms joints with the superior articular processes of the vertebra below.
What is the lamina in lumbar vertebrae?
The part that connects the spinous process to the transverse process.
What is the function of the hyoid bone?
Supports the tongue and is involved in swallowing.
What is the name of the lower jaw bone?
Mandible.
What is the purpose of the transverse process in a vertebra?
It provides attachment points for muscles and ligaments.
What are the zygomatic bones commonly known as?
Cheekbones.
What is the purpose of the spinous process?
It serves as an attachment point for muscles and ligaments.
How many vertebrae are in the lumbar region?
5 vertebrae.
What is lordosis?
A condition characterized by an excessive inward curvature of the spine, often referred to as swayback.
What distinguishes thoracic vertebrae from other vertebrae?
They articulate with the ribs.
What unique feature do T1 to T10 thoracic vertebrae have?
Transverse costal facets.
What percentage of bone mass do specialized cells constitute?
2%.
What is the endosteum?
A tissue that lines the inner surface of the bone.
What are the two main types of bone tissue?
Cortical (compact) bone and trabecular (spongy) bone.
What bones are included in the axial skeleton?
Cranium, face, auditory ossicles, hyoid, ribs, vertebrae, sacrum, and coccyx.
Do lumbar vertebrae have costal or transverse costal facets?
No, they do not have these facets.
How are true ribs connected to the sternum?
By costal cartilages.
How do exercise, hormones, and nutrition affect bone development?
They influence bone density, strength, and overall skeletal health.
How many facial bones are there?
14 facial bones.
What is the function of the sacral curve?
To provide structural support and flexibility to the vertebral column.
What do the dorsolateral surfaces of thoracic vertebrae bodies have?
Costal facets.
What is the medullary cavity?
The central cavity of bone where bone marrow is stored.
What is the general weight difference of the skull between males and females?
The male skull is heavier and rougher, while the female skull is lighter and smoother.
What is the function of the pedicle in vertebral anatomy?
It connects the vertebral body to the posterior elements of the vertebra.
How many bones make up the skull and associated bones?
29 bones.
What is the neck of a rib?
The section between the head and the tubercle.
What is the lamina of the vertebral arch?
It is a flat part of the vertebral arch that connects the spinous process to the transverse processes.
What structure is found on the occipital bone that articulates with the vertebrae?
Occipital condyle.
What does fossa refer to in bone markings?
A shallow depression.
What is a trochanter?
A large, rough projection where tendons or ligaments attach.
What are the superior articular facets responsible for?
They facilitate the connection between vertebrae.
What is the cervical curve and when does it develop?
A secondary curve that develops as the infant learns to balance the weight of the head.
What is the zygomatic arch?
The bony arch formed by the zygomatic bone and the temporal bone.
What is the function of the superior articular process in a lumbar vertebra?
It helps form joints with adjacent vertebrae.
What part of the rib connects to the vertebrae?
Head.
What is the main function of lumbar vertebrae?
Support the lower back and bear weight.
What bones are represented on the left and right sides of the adult skull?
Parietal bones.
How many lumbar vertebrae are in the lower back?
5 lumbar vertebrae.
What is a distinctive feature of the spinous processes of thoracic vertebrae?
They are long and slender.
What is the significance of the vertebral foramen in thoracic vertebrae?
It allows passage for the spinal cord.
What is the shape of the vertebral foramen in lumbar vertebrae?
Triangular.
What is the percentage of sodium in bone?
0.7%.
What does the vertebral body do?
It supports the weight of the body and absorbs shock.
What is the vertebral foramen?
The opening that allows the spinal cord to pass through.
What age group is most commonly affected by scoliosis?
Adolescents, particularly during growth spurts.
What is the process of bone growth called?
Ossification.
What bones are primarily involved in the structure of an infant's skull?
Frontal bone, parietal bone, and occipital bone.
What bones make up the thoracic cage?
24 ribs and the sternum.
How does height change with age according to the WHO reference?
Height increases as age increases from 5 to 19 years.
How many bones make up the vertebral column?
26 bones.
What is a sulcus?
A narrow groove.
What are the four fontanelles of the infant skull?
Anterior, posterior, sphenoidal, and mastoid fontanelles.
What does tubercle refer to?
A small, rounded projection.
How many vertebrae are in the thoracic region?
12 vertebrae.
What bones make up the nasal region of the skull?
Nasal bone and lacrimal bone.
What do the thick transverse processes of T1 to T10 allow for?
Rib articulation.
What is the role of the transverse process in a lumbar vertebra?
It serves as an attachment point for muscles and ligaments.
What is osteoid?
The organic component of the bone matrix secreted by osteoblasts.
What is the significance of the pedicle in a lumbar vertebra?
It connects the vertebral body to the posterior elements.
What is the coccyx commonly known as?
The tailbone.
What is the main function of the vertebral body in a lumbar vertebra?
To bear weight and provide structural support.
What does the spinous process do in thoracic vertebrae?
It provides attachment for muscles and ligaments.
What is the zygomatic bone commonly known as?
The cheekbone.
What is the head (capitulum) of the rib?
The end of the rib that articulates with the vertebrae.
What is the significance of the 50th percentile in height-for-age data?
It represents the median height for boys in that age group.
What is the name of the process located on the temporal bone?
Mastoid process.
Which bone forms the upper jaw in an infant's skull?
Maxilla.
What is the role of the vertebral body?
It provides support and bears weight.
When do primary curves develop?
Before birth.
What is the intervertebral foramen?
It is the opening through which spinal nerves exit the vertebral column.
How do bones remodel throughout life?
Through the continuous process of bone resorption and formation.
What is the sagittal suture?
A major suture of the skull that runs between the left and right parietal bones.
What is the external feature on the occipital bone called?
External occipital protuberance.
What is the name of the fontanelle located at the sphenoid region?
Sphenoidal fontanelle.
Define spine in the context of bone markings.
A pointed process.
What is the lumbar curve and when does it develop?
A secondary curve that balances the weight of the trunk over the lower limbs; it develops with the ability to stand.
What is the function of the external acoustic meatus?
It is the ear canal that leads to the eardrum.
What is the function of the lambdoid suture?
It connects the occipital bone with the parietal bones.
What structure does the arrow in the diagram pass through?
The vertebral canal.
How many spinal curves are there?
4 spinal curves.
What is the function of the lamina of the vertebral arch?
It protects the spinal cord and provides attachment for muscles.
What is the function of the thoracic curve?
To accommodate the thoracic organs.
What are the major sutures of the skull?
Coronal suture, lambdoid suture, squamous suture.
What is the mental protuberance?
The forward projection of the mandible, commonly referred to as the chin.
