HUBE(P.66-77)

B) The factor being manipulated

Explanation: The independent variable is the factor that investigators manipulate in an experiment to observe its effect on the dependent variable.

B) Deciding how to measure the topic of interest

Explanation: The first step in developmental research is to decide how to measure the topic or behavior of interest, which sets the foundation for the entire research process.

B) Watching people in a real-life situation without interference

Explanation: Naturalistic observation involves observing people as they behave spontaneously in their natural environment, allowing researchers to gather data without manipulation.

C) Heart rate

Explanation: Heart rate is commonly measured to determine a person's level of attention, as it often slows down when individuals are focused on something interesting.

B) To have better control over variables

Explanation: Researchers conduct experiments in controlled settings to manage and manipulate variables effectively, which helps in obtaining clearer results, although it may not reflect natural behaviors.

C) To provide access to original data for further research

Explanation: Data archives allow researchers to deposit their data so that others can access original datasets, facilitating continued research and building on previous findings.

C) Longitudinal study

Explanation: A longitudinal study involves repeated observations or tests of the same individuals at different points in their lives, making it ideal for examining changes and stability in behavior over time.

C) To evaluate proposed studies for ethical protections

Explanation: The Institutional Review Board (IRB) reviews research proposals to ensure that they protect the rights of participants before any data collection begins.

C) They may not represent behavior in natural settings

Explanation: Laboratory experiments can produce artificial results that may not accurately reflect how individuals behave in real-world situations, limiting the generalizability of the findings.

B) The strength and direction of a relationship between two variables

Explanation: The correlation coefficient quantifies how strongly two variables are related and indicates whether the relationship is positive or negative.

C) Mobile phones negatively affect driving skills

Explanation: If older adults drive better in the 'no phone' condition, it suggests that talking on a mobile phone has a harmful effect on their driving skills, allowing for causal conclusions due to controlled conditions.

B) They provide a more direct measure of underlying behavior

Explanation: Physiological measures offer a direct assessment of specific behaviors, making them valuable for certain types of research, although they are highly specialized.

B) To build and present surveys and questionnaires

Explanation: Survey Monkey is a well-known platform that enables researchers to create and present surveys and questionnaires, allowing for flexible question sets based on respondents' answers.

C) Qualitative research

Explanation: Qualitative research focuses on detailed observation and understanding of behaviors, often using methods like video recording and interviews to gather rich, descriptive data.

C) A strong positive relationship

Explanation: A correlation of 0.9 signifies a very strong positive relationship, meaning that as one variable increases, the other variable also tends to increase significantly.

B) To approve or object to proposed studies

Explanation: Review panels are responsible for evaluating proposed studies and ensuring they meet ethical guidelines. If they object to certain aspects, researchers must revise and resubmit for approval.

B) To share findings with other researchers

Explanation: Researchers submit their reports to scientific journals to disseminate their findings, allowing other human development researchers to learn from their work.

B) They cannot study stability of behavior.

Explanation: Cross-sectional designs do not allow researchers to track changes in behavior over time, making it difficult to assess stability and development.

B) People’s answers to questions about a topic of interest

Explanation: Self-reports are defined as individuals' responses to questions regarding the topic being studied, which can be collected through questionnaires or interviews.

C) The researcher creates a setting to elicit specific behaviors

Explanation: Structured observations involve the researcher creating a specific environment to encourage certain behaviors, making them useful for studying behaviors that are rare or private.

C) Cortisol

Explanation: Cortisol is a hormone that is secreted in response to stress, and measuring its levels in saliva can help researchers determine when individuals are experiencing stress.

B) Planning studies that have never been done before

Explanation: A significant and creative aspect of human development research is the planning of innovative studies that contribute new insights to the field.

B) They can distort performance due to repeated testing.

Explanation: Longitudinal designs can lead to performance distortion because participants are tested repeatedly, which may affect their responses over time.

B) It may not provide a realistic sample of behavior

Explanation: Using photographs to assess children's emotional recognition may underestimate their real-life abilities, as the task does not fully capture the complexity of emotional interactions in everyday situations.

B) To indicate the last name(s) of the researcher(s) and publication year

Explanation: Citations in research reports serve to identify the researchers and the year of publication, allowing readers to locate the original work in the reference section.

B) They can lead to unnatural behavior due to artificial settings

Explanation: Structured observations may produce unnatural behavior because participants are aware they are being observed and are in an artificial environment, which can affect their actions.

B) A combination of cross-sectional and longitudinal designs

Explanation: A sequential design integrates both cross-sectional and longitudinal approaches, allowing researchers to distinguish age-related changes from cohort effects, making it a powerful research method despite its expense.

B) Provide a thorough explanation after the study

Explanation: If deception is necessary, researchers must explain the true nature of the experiment as soon as possible, typically right after the experiment.

B) To know if findings apply to the general population

Explanation: Representative samples are crucial because they help determine whether research findings can be generalized to broader populations, rather than being limited to the specific group studied.

B) To eliminate bias in assigning participants to conditions

Explanation: Random assignment ensures that each participant has an equal chance of being assigned to any treatment condition, which helps eliminate bias and allows for causal conclusions.

B) They are less expensive and avoid repeated testing

Explanation: Cross-sectional studies are advantageous because they test individuals at one point in time, which reduces costs and avoids the complications of repeated testing.

C) Children rely on movement and sound in real-life situations

Explanation: Children often use movement and accompanying sounds to interpret emotions, which are absent in still photographs, making it harder for them to accurately judge emotions.

B) They observe variables as they naturally exist.

Explanation: Correlational research designs focus on observing and measuring variables in their natural state, without manipulation, which allows for the identification of relationships but not causation.

D) All of the above

Explanation: The three interpretations of a correlation include that one variable causes the other, the reverse causation, or that both are influenced by a third variable, making all options valid interpretations.

C) Correlational studies and experimental studies

Explanation: Human development researchers primarily rely on correlational studies and experimental studies to investigate relationships and effects within their research.

B) The behavior being observed

Explanation: The dependent variable is the behavior or outcome that researchers measure to evaluate the impact of the independent variable in an experiment.

B) It cannot determine cause and effect

Explanation: While correlational studies can show relationships between variables, they do not provide evidence for causation, meaning they cannot confirm whether one variable causes changes in another.

C) They may be invalid due to incorrect answers from participants

Explanation: Self-reports can be unreliable because participants may forget details or exhibit response bias, leading to inaccurate data.

C) People may not remember past events accurately

Explanation: A limitation of self-reports is that individuals may struggle to recall past events accurately, which can lead to unreliable data.

C) It helps establish laws against child abuse and labor practices

Explanation: Human development research significantly influences social policy, including laws related to child abuse, labor practices, and other societal regulations.

C) Digit span task

Explanation: The digit span task is an example of a task used to measure memory in older adults, where participants repeat a series of digits presented to them, allowing researchers to sample the behavior of interest.

C) Use methods with the least potential for harm

Explanation: Researchers are required to minimize risks by using methods that have the least potential for causing harm or stress to participants.

B) Whether a measure actually measures what researchers think it measures

Explanation: Validity assesses if a measurement accurately reflects the concept it is intended to measure, ensuring that the conclusions drawn from it are meaningful.

C) Maintaining contact with participants over time can be challenging

Explanation: One of the significant disadvantages of the longitudinal approach is the difficulty in maintaining contact with participants over years or decades, which can lead to dropouts and potentially distort the study's outcomes.

B) Synthesize results of many quantitative studies

Explanation: Meta-analysis enables researchers to combine results from multiple studies to estimate relationships between variables, providing a comprehensive understanding of a topic.

B) It provides richer, more detailed reports

Explanation: Qualitative research offers in-depth insights and detailed descriptions of behaviors, which can enhance understanding beyond what numerical data can provide.

C) A parent or guardian must provide consent

Explanation: When participants are children or adolescents, consent must be provided by a parent, legal guardian, or another responsible person.

C) It helps in obtaining valid conclusions by representing the population of interest

Explanation: Representative sampling is crucial because an unrepresentative sample can lead to invalid conclusions, making it essential for the trustworthiness of research findings.

B) A phenomenon where differences between age groups arise from environmental events

Explanation: A cohort effect refers to the issue in cross-sectional studies where differences between age groups may be attributed to environmental factors rather than developmental processes.

B) Inconsistent measures of quality of life

Explanation: Kojima and colleagues found that only four out of 5,145 potential studies could be included in their meta-analysis due to a lack of comparable measures of quality of life, highlighting the difficulties in comparing findings across studies.

D) World Health Organization (WHO)

Explanation: The text lists specific organizations that provide ethical guidelines, and the World Health Organization (WHO) is not mentioned among them.

B) The extent to which a measure provides a consistent index of a characteristic

Explanation: Reliability is defined as the consistency of a measure, meaning it should yield the same results upon repeated administration, which is crucial for trustworthy research.

C) To combine the strengths of longitudinal and cross-sectional designs.

Explanation: Sequential designs aim to address the limitations of both longitudinal and cross-sectional studies by testing multiple groups over time, thus providing a more comprehensive understanding of development.

C) Facial features in photographs are still, unlike in real life

Explanation: Children may find it challenging to judge emotions from photographs because the stillness of facial features lacks the movement that provides additional emotional cues in real-life interactions.

A) Participants may become uninterested

Explanation: In longitudinal studies, participants may lose interest over time, leading to dropouts, which can affect the validity of the study's findings.

B) E-Prime

Explanation: E-Prime is highlighted as one of the popular online platforms used in psychology for conducting research, along with other tools like PsychoPy and PsyToolkit.

C) They are convenient and easier to conduct than longitudinal studies.

Explanation: Cross-sectional studies are favored for their relative ease of execution, making them a practical choice despite their limitations in studying stability of behavior over time.