urban issues and challenges

HIC cities, such as London, Paris, and New York, are influential due to their economic and cultural importance. They attract around 20 million tourists each day and are seen as stylish and modern, leading many major TNCs to establish their headquarters and offices there.

LIC cities have smaller urban populations due to fewer business opportunities attracting rural workers. They often feature temporary housing or poorly built communities known as shanty towns, where the poorest urban families reside.

The growth of urban cities is influenced by a global birth rate that exceeds the death rate, improvements in healthcare and medical knowledge, better disaster warning systems, and enhanced midwifery knowledge that reduces pregnancy fatalities.

Rural-urban migration is the movement of individuals from rural areas to urban cities for better work opportunities and quality of life. This migration is influenced by push factors (conditions that drive people away from rural areas) and pull factors (attractions of urban living).

Cities offer higher paid jobs and more opportunities due to the presence of many businesses. They provide better education options, as colleges and universities are typically located in cities. Public transport enhances mobility, allowing residents to access medical care without needing a car. Additionally, city life is more entertaining with a variety of shops, cinemas, clubs, and restaurants.

A megacity is defined as a city with a population of over 10 million people. Examples of megacities include Tokyo, Delhi, Shanghai, and São Paulo, among others.

People may migrate to cities based on dreams or reputations, but upon arrival, they may find that the reasons for their move are not true or do not meet their expectations.

Cities can enhance residents' lifestyles through various facilities such as:

• Sports Stadiums and Teams: Especially if local teams are successful in leagues.
• Shopping Centres and Markets: These can attract tourists and provide retail jobs.
• Clubs, Bars, and Restaurants: They significantly influence a city's nightlife.
• Tourist Attractions: Such as art galleries, museums, and historical buildings that boost the local economy and attract visitors.

Transport systems are crucial for urban areas because:

• Congestion: Congested cities become unpopular due to long journey times and disrupted commutes.
• Integrated Transport: A well-integrated transport system allows individuals to travel across the city using various transport modes.
• Accessibility: It provides choices for those who cannot afford cars or are unable to cycle.
• Sustainability: A good transport system can reduce emissions and promote sustainable travel options, such as cycling and public transport.

To improve urban transport systems for sustainability, cities can implement the following measures:

1. Building Cycle Paths: To encourage more bike usage.
2. Increasing Availability of Buses and Trams: To enhance public transport options.
3. Reducing Standstill Congestion: To minimize emissions produced by idling vehicles in traffic.

Before 1950, most urbanisation occurred in high-income countries (HICs) due to industrialisation, with many people moving from rural to urban areas for jobs in expanding industries.

Counter-urbanisation is the process where people move from cities to rural environments, which has been observed in some of the biggest cities in high-income countries since 1950.

Since 1950, the most rapid growth in urbanisation has occurred in low-income countries (LICs) in South America, Africa, and Asia.

The three leading causes of urbanisation in LICs since 1950 are: 1. Rural-to-urban migration due to population pressure and lack of resources (push factors). 2. The belief that living standards in urban areas will be better (pull factors). 3. Natural increase from decreased death rates while birth rates remain high.

Push factors that lead to urbanisation include: 1. Agricultural challenges such as limited employment opportunities due to farming mechanisation. 2. Environmental factors like droughts. 3. Insufficient land for the growing population.

People migrate to Lagos for several reasons:

1. Employment Opportunities: Better job prospects in tertiary sectors such as law, finance, and business.
2. Education: Access to more schools and universities, leading to better job opportunities.
3. Healthcare: Improved healthcare facilities compared to rural areas.
4. Transport Links: Enhanced transport infrastructure, making it easier to navigate the city.
5. Electricity and Water Supply: More reliable electricity and water supply than in rural areas, despite challenges.
6. Safety: Higher police presence and crime prevention measures compared to rural areas affected by groups like Boko Haram.

Urban growth in Lagos presents several challenges:

1. Managing Urban Growth: Development of slums and squatter settlements, such as the Makoko slums.
2. Providing Clean Water and Sanitation: Difficulty in ensuring access to clean water and sanitation systems.
3. Energy Supply: Inconsistent electricity supply and reliance on generators for power.
4. Access to Services: Limited access to health and education services, particularly in informal settlements.

The economic landscape of Lagos offers several advantages over rural Nigeria:

• Higher Incomes: Incomes can be up to four times higher in Lagos than in rural areas.
• Tertiary Sector Jobs: 78% of jobs are in the tertiary sector, which typically offers better pay and working conditions.
• Construction Opportunities: Rapid urban growth leads to numerous construction jobs, such as those related to the Eko Atlantic project.
• Financial and Government Hubs: Lagos hosts many banks, government departments, and manufacturing industries.
• Ports and Fishing Industry: The city has two major ports and a growing fishing industry.
• Cultural Industry: Lagos is known for its thriving film and music industry, particularly 'Nollywood'.

Eko Atlantic is a significant urban development project in Lagos:

• Initiation: Started in 2006, it involves reclaiming land on the coast of Victoria Island.
• Funding: Developed with private finance and support from the Federal Government.
• Infrastructure: Includes high-rise buildings, international hospitals, and schools.
• Environmental Management: Aims to overcome coastal erosion while creating a new urban area.

Megacities like Tokyo and Los Angeles have infrastructure that can handle the population, including adequate water supplies, food, doctors, and schools, resulting in little inequality.

Rapidly expanding megacities, such as Mumbai and Mexico City, often face high pressure on infrastructure, leading to inequalities where some residents live in luxury while others reside in squatter settlements.

Governments may aim to:

1. Attract high-income investors for increased tax revenue and employment opportunities.
2. Protect the city's culture for tourism and national identity.
3. Promote sustainability by preventing urban sprawl that destroys surrounding green land.

Urban Greening is the process of encouraging more vegetation and green spaces in urban areas to enhance sustainability and attractiveness.

Planting trees can provide homes for bird nests, offer shade, and contribute to the overall aesthetic of the city.

Green walls are vertical gardens that can be constructed along offices and buildings, enhancing their appearance with lush foliage.

Parks can become protected land in cities, providing residents with open spaces for exercise and leisure activities.

Raised plant beds can be built on pavements to host wildflowers or mini allotments, adding greenery to urban landscapes.

Rooftop gardens are becoming increasingly popular, especially for use in rooftop bars or cafes, providing green spaces in high-density areas.

Cemeteries are being protected as they can serve as habitats for wildlife, contributing to biodiversity even in city centers.

Poor economic conditions, lack of adequate income, and subsistence living conditions are key economic pressures that drive urbanization.

Inadequate access to resources such as water, healthcare, and education in rural areas contributes to rural-urban migration.

Natural disasters that destroy livelihoods and conflicts or wars can force people to leave rural areas and migrate to urban settings.

1. Employment Opportunities: Availability of jobs in industrial, service, and technology sectors.
2. Better Living Standards: Perception of a higher quality of life, including modern housing and better healthcare.
3. Education: Better educational facilities and a wider range of opportunities.
4. Social Factors: Established family ties, cultural attractions, and lifestyle considerations.
5. Healthcare Services: More accessible and advanced medical care in urban areas.

A megacity is an urban area with a population of over ten million people.

In 1975, there were only four megacities: New York, Tokyo, Mexico City, and São Paulo.

Today, there are estimated to be 35 megacities worldwide.

Asia is home to 60% of the world's megacities, with the majority located in India and China.

The UN predicts that by 2030, 60% of the world's population will live in urban environments.

New megacities expected to emerge by 2050 include Ahmedabad, Chennai, Chengdu, Dar es Salaam, London, Johannesburg, Luanda, and Thành Phố Hồ Chí Minh.

Squatter settlements in Lagos are found along the eastern part bordering Lagos Lagoon, built on marginal land in a linear pattern. An example is Makoko, which is home to nearly 100,000 residents, primarily migrants. The settlements are characterized by homes built on stilts, with boats as the primary mode of transportation, and residents often using canals as toilets and rubbish dumps.

Key problems include:

1. Overcrowding: 75% of households live in one room, increasing disease risk.
2. Water Access: Most residents rely on wells or boreholes, with only 11% having piped water.
3. Sanitation: 10% have access to septic tanks, while 33% use pail latrines and 2% use bush toilets, leading to unhygienic conditions.

Positive aspects include:

• Happiness: Residents report being happy living there.
• Informal Jobs: Higher income opportunities without tax obligations.
• Sustainable Development: Potential for projects like the Floating School.

Challenges include:

• High Costs: The most common way to obtain fresh water is through street vendors at inflated prices.
• Limited Supply: Only 10% of the population has access to treated piped water, while 90% rely on wells, boreholes, or vendors.

The lack of sanitation facilities leads to:

• Contaminated Water: Waste often goes into local water resources, causing health problems.
• Sewage Issues: Sewage is washed away by rainwater into open drains, polluting rivers and the lagoon.

Environmental issues include:

• Pollution: Water is very polluted due to waste being dumped in the lagoon.
• Flooding Risks: Future flooding problems are anticipated due to rising sea levels.

As populations increase, cities face a higher demand for doctors and teachers, but the supply often does not keep pace. This can lead to insufficient facilities, oversubscribed schools, and difficulties in accessing healthcare services like doctor's appointments. To address this, governments may encourage local youth to pursue education to fill service gaps instead of relying on migration. However, economic pressures may lead children from poorer families to work instead of attending school.

Squatter settlements arise due to limited affordable housing for migrants, who often arrive with little money. These settlements are typically built on unfavorable land and consist of temporary houses made from salvaged materials. Challenges include:

• Lack of ownership and risk of eviction
• High crime rates due to absence of police and street lighting
• Absence of water and electricity infrastructure, leading to unsafe supply methods
• Close proximity of houses, increasing the risk of infectious diseases and fires spreading rapidly.

Migrants often arrive in cities without guaranteed jobs, coming from rural areas with limited access to the internet and communication tools. This lack of connectivity prevents them from securing employment before migrating. Many move with the hope of finding better job opportunities, but high rates of rural-urban migration can lead to increased competition for available jobs, exacerbating unemployment issues.

The two types of land are greenfield land (land that hasn't been built on before) and brownfield land (land that has been previously built on).

Urban sprawl refers to the uncontrolled expansion of a city. It is a concern because it can lead to residents being too far from the city center, loss of city characteristics, and environmental degradation.

Advantages of greenfield land include:

1. No additional costs to remove rubble or waste.
2. Cheaper land price, as it is often further from the city center.
3. Provides a good source of income for struggling farmers selling their land.

Disadvantages of brownfield land include:

1. High costs to remove waste and demolish existing buildings.
2. Housing tends to be unaffordable and high-value, limiting who can live there.
3. Potential for dereliction and urban sprawl if not managed properly.

Balancing greenfield and brownfield land use is important to prevent urban sprawl and dereliction, ensuring that cities do not grow uncontrollably and that central areas do not become empty wastelands.

The new megacity in the Pearl River Delta could potentially house up to 120 million people.

The planned megacity will encompass Hong Kong, Shenzhen, and Guangzhou.

The new megacity would be 20 times larger than London.

The growth is driven by high population growth and significant rural-to-urban migration.

Many future megacities are expected in Asia, particularly in China and India.

Cities in Europe, North America, and Japan typically exhibit lower growth rates compared to the rapidly growing cities in Africa.

Lagos is predicted to reach a population of 40 million by 2035, which would place it among the world's top 3 megacities.

The main issues include:

1. Growing population - predicted to reach 40 million by 2035.
2. Population density - 4 times more crowded than London.
3. Rising sea levels - threatened by sea level rise of about 3mm annually.
4. Water supply - lacks a system for storing and distributing water despite high rainfall.
5. Power supply - electricity supply is unreliable, leading many to use generators.
6. Congestion - average Lagosian spends 3 hours a day in traffic.

The floating school incorporates several sustainable features:

• Photovoltaic cells for generating electricity from sunlight.
• Natural ventilation to reduce carbon footprint.
• Rainwater collection and storage to meet water demands.
• Local building materials to minimize transportation emissions.
• Floating platform to adapt to rising sea levels.

Residents, such as those from Makoko, view the floating school positively as it represents recognition and a solution to their lack of educational facilities.

The impacts of traffic congestion include:

• High pollution levels (5x higher than recommended limits).
• Health issues such as respiratory illnesses.
• Contribution to climate change.
• Job-related stress due to lateness leading to potential job loss.
• Increased accidents (28 per 100,000 people).
• High stress levels among commuters.

The Lagos State Government established the Lagos Metropolitan Area Transport Authority (LAMATA) in 2003 to improve transport in the city, including the introduction of the Bus Rapid Transit (BRT) system on a north-south route.

Examples of informal work include:

• Street Sellers
• House Help & Cleaners
• Rag Picker

Informal jobs do not contribute to tax revenue because they are part of the informal sector, where workers are often paid in cash and there are limited regulations.

Urban cities face several environmental challenges, including:

• Increased traffic congestion due to more cars and buses.
• Higher greenhouse gas emissions from car engines, such as carbon dioxide and nitrogen oxide.
• Air pollution from factories and machinery.

Increasing air pollution can lead to higher rates of respiratory conditions, such as asthma and lung disease. It is estimated that 5.5 million people die from polluted air worldwide.

Consequences of improper waste management include:

• Accumulation of waste in squatter settlements, leading to disease spread by rats.
• Illegal disposal of industrial waste, which can be hazardous to wildlife and humans.
• Contamination of waterways with poisonous chemicals, leading to health issues like liver cancer.

Proper sewage management is crucial to prevent contamination of waterways, which can cause diseases such as cholera. In areas without proper infrastructure, sewage can be dumped close to homes, posing health risks.

High-income families are more engaged in their education and are more likely to attend further education, whereas children from low-income families are more likely to pursue a job at an early age, limiting their future job opportunities.

Home ownership rates tend to be higher for high-income individuals, as they are more successful at obtaining mortgages, while low-income families often rent or live in social housing.

Higher income is associated with more sports participation on average, which positively affects mental and physical health.

There tends to be higher rates of crime in low-income areas compared to high-income areas.

Low-income families tend to have poorer diets, as fresh foods and vegetables are more expensive and perish quickly.

Life expectancy is generally higher for high-income households since they can afford private healthcare.

Low-income households tend to take more labor-intensive jobs rather than office-based work.

If the government doesn't spread its funding and investment, regions of the city can fall behind in development, leading to increased social inequality.

Lagos is the largest city in Nigeria and serves as a major financial center in Africa. It is known for its vibrant culture, economic activities, and as a hub for trade and commerce.

Lagos is located on the southwestern coast of Nigeria along the Atlantic Ocean. It features a lagoon system, numerous islands, and a tropical savanna climate.

Lagos has experienced rapid population growth, making it one of the fastest-growing cities in the world. This growth is driven by urbanization and migration from rural areas.

Lagos faces challenges such as traffic congestion, inadequate infrastructure, housing shortages, and environmental degradation due to its rapid urbanization.

Lagos is a key economic driver for Nigeria, contributing significantly to the country's GDP through sectors like finance, trade, and entertainment.

To reduce travel time for public transport users.

A wider Strategic Transport master plan for Lagos that aims to create an integrated transport system linking road, rail, and waterway networks.

It includes ferries designed to improve transport use of the water areas in Lagos.

Better urban planning with mixed-use development.

It is located further from the congested urban area to alleviate traffic congestion.

It means that both government and private entities are involved in the operation and funding of the BRT scheme.

600 people.

220,000 people.

500,000 people.

To extend it from east to west.

High levels of unemployment can lead to increased crime rates.

Rapid urbanization often leads to increased emissions from vehicles and industries without adequate regulations.

10% of people have piped water; others rely on water vendors or dig their own wells/boreholes.

It is salty, very expensive, and extremely polluted, making it unsuitable for drinking.

It regulates water supply and vendors, issuing licenses for boreholes to ensure safe water at reasonable prices.

Lagos is vulnerable due to its coastal location, flat low-lying land, wet tropical climate, rapid urbanization, and squatter settlements without proper drainage.

The four main categories are:

1. Improving City Life
2. Improving the Economy
3. Helping the Poorest
4. Protecting the Environment

Governments can provide scholarships for training doctors and teachers, which can lead to more people accessing healthcare and education services.

Traffic congestion can be reduced by building new roads and introducing tolls for cars traveling through the city center, which discourages car use.

Squatter settlements can be rehomed into more permanent settlements that include essential services like water taps, electricity, sewage, and street lights to enhance safety and health.

To protect the environment, industries can be fined for polluting, and there should be stricter monitoring and enforcement. Additionally, more sewage plants and waste disposal sites can be created to manage increased rubbish.

Governments can provide more college places and night schools to encourage people of all ages to educate themselves and gain skills needed for employment.

Strict policing, especially in squatter settlements, should be implemented to discourage gangs and reduce violence.

The main aims of urban regeneration include:

1. Encouraging economic growth and attracting new businesses to invest in the city.
2. Changing the appearance of a region, especially if it has become derelict or unattractive.
3. Attracting a different group of residents, such as high wage investors or multicultural groups of workers.

Canary Wharf transformed from a derelict dock for trade and industry, which was unattractive for new businesses and a target for crime, into a modern area with skyscrapers that contribute to London's iconic skyline. It now hosts many finance and banking headquarters, attracting high-paying, skilled workers.

In response to a series of terrorist attacks, Manchester rebuilt sections of the city, creating opportunities for new attractions and more attractive public spaces. An example is Spinningfields, which features large glass-fronted shops and has attracted high-end stores like Selfridges. Additionally, the MEN arena is undergoing remodelling to align with the city's identity and culture.

Lagos is located in the southwest of Nigeria on the coast of the Gulf of Guinea, near its border with Benin.

Lagos was originally a tiny fishing village on an island before it developed into a major city.

Lagos ceased to be the capital of Nigeria in 1991 when the capital was moved to Abuja.

The Lagos State Government estimates the population of Lagos at 17.5 million.

The National Population Commission of Nigeria reported the population of Lagos to be over 21 million in 2016.

A population boom occurred in Lagos during the 1970s due to the growth of the oil industry, attracting many people seeking jobs.

As the population of Lagos grew, the city's physical size expanded from Lagos Island to the mainland, particularly along the railway line.

The Makoko School was built in 2014 to meet educational needs and help communities withstand the impact of rising sea levels from climate change.

The Makoko School is sustainable due to the following features:

1. Solar panels for energy
2. Rainwater collection for water storage
3. Locally sourced building materials

The Makoko School contributes to the local community by:

• Educating up to 100 students for free, reducing the need for them to work or scavenge for school fees.
• Providing jobs for local teachers.
• Serving as a venue for community meetings and activities, enhancing community spirit.

The Makoko School has faced several challenges, including:

1. Small scale of the facility
2. Collapse in a storm in 2016
3. Rebuilt and renovated in 2024

The success of the Makoko School encouraged the government to launch the 'Makoko / Iwaya Regeneration Plan', which aims to further develop the slum by building more homes and establishing a biogas plant for cooking gas.

Glasgow's local government has implemented several initiatives including:

1. Constructing new tourist attractions like the Glasgow Science Centre and SECC.
2. Developing the waterfront alongside the River Clyde into attractive offices for leading businesses.
3. Enhancing the city centre's attractiveness and accessibility with tree-lined roads, cycle paths, and reduced car traffic on some roads.

Sustainability in urban development refers to creating cities with minimal environmental damage and social inequality while conserving resources for the future, such as clean water and energy sources.

Key environmental factors include:

• Use of renewable energy sources (e.g., solar panels, geothermal).
• Utilization of greywater for irrigation and toilet flushing.
• Increased recycling rates to reduce waste per person.
• Low emission transport options, such as biofuel buses.

Local residents can contribute by having a say in political decisions and new developments in the town, which fosters community involvement and ensures that developments meet the needs of the community.

Economic measures to promote sustainability include:

1. Implementing increased taxes and fines for polluting companies or car users, with funds reinvested into the city.
2. Creating jobs and businesses in sustainable technology.

Reducing air pollution leads to significant health benefits, such as easier breathing for asthma sufferers and individuals with poor health, and contributes to a healthier living environment overall.

Incentives can include rewards for households that comply with environmental rules or adopt more sustainable practices, encouraging a community-wide effort towards sustainability.

The city center skyline of Lagos is dominated by modern, high-rise offices, surrounded by sprawling suburbs linked by busy roads.

Lagos is the main destination for rural-urban migrants in Nigeria, offering more employment opportunities than most other parts of the country.

Lagos has an extensive network of roads and a major seaport, connecting the southwest region to the rest of Nigeria.

Lagos has more hospitals and schools than any other region in Nigeria, attracting people from nearby states for services.

Lagos generates the highest money earned of all states in Nigeria and is home to 10% of Nigeria's population, contributing about 30% of its GDP.

80% of Nigeria's imports and 70% of its exports pass through the docks in Lagos.

Lagos is Nigeria's media centre, home to many television channels and newspapers, and is also the centre of Nigeria's film industry.

Lagos is Nigeria's financial centre, housing most banks, financial institutions, and the stock exchange, as well as the headquarters of many large corporations and Transnational Corporations (TNCs).

Lagos is the main financial centre of West Africa, with 80% of flights into West Africa going to Lagos airport, and it has one of the highest standards of living in Nigeria and Africa.

Population density increases towards the south of the UK, while it decreases in the north. This is illustrated by the choropleth map, which shows lighter colors in the north and darker colors in the south.

As population density increases towards the south of the UK, the amount of rainfall decreases. Conversely, in the north of Scotland, population density decreases while rainfall increases.

An anomaly is observed with Glasgow, which is in the north and has a population of over 5000, similar to London in the south, despite the general trend of lower population density in the north.

The 10 highest urban areas are predominantly located in the south of the UK, characterized by higher population densities, while the 10 lowest urban areas are mainly in the north, showing lower population densities.

Apapa port is the 5th busiest port in Africa.

Lagos has been the venue for the African Cup of Nations football tournament.

Lagos is the ICT centre of West Africa, housing the largest market on the continent.

The Lagos International Trade Fair has become a major international business forum, attracting people from across the continent.

In 1960, Lagos had less than 1 million people; by 1990 it reached 4 million, over 12 million by 2015, and is estimated to be 16.5 million in 2024.

The rapid urbanization of Lagos was largely due to the 1970s oil boom, which attracted many thousands of people seeking employment opportunities.

Lagos originally started on Lagos Island but has since expanded onto the mainland, reflecting its growth in both physical area and population.

Lagos is located in the south-west of Nigeria, on the coast of the Gulf of Guinea. It is Nigeria's largest city and was originally a small fishing village on an island until Portuguese settlers arrived in the 15th century.

1. Overpopulation leading to slums.
2. Difficulty in providing clean water, sanitation, and energy.
3. Challenges in providing access to services such as healthcare and education, as well as reducing unemployment and crime.

1. Jobs are poorly paid.
2. The economy is unregulated.
3. Work conditions are often dangerous.
4. Sick pay is not available.

1. Home to most banks, financial institutions, and the stock exchange.
2. 80% of Nigeria's industry is located in Lagos.
3. Lagos produces 25% of Nigeria's GDP and is home to many national media organizations.

1. Industrialization.
2. Rural-urban migration.

1. Job opportunities in the secondary and tertiary sectors.
2. Improved access to services.
3. Enhanced economic development.
4. Better access to resources.

The growth of Lagos has led to the formation of slums, such as Makoko, where 60% of the population lives. Many residents earn as little as $1.25 per day and work in the informal economy, contributing to significant inequality.

1. Lack of access to clean water and sanitation.
2. Structures built with local materials are vulnerable to storms.
3. Poor refuse removal leads to heavy pollution in nearby lagoons, and proximity to industry causes considerable pollution.

1. Establishment of floating schools for education.
2. Development of new transport routes such as LAMATA and BRT.

1. Lack of clean water.
2. Rapid population growth and high density.
3. Rising sea levels.
4. Unreliable water supply.

1. Rubbish dumps, with authorities only collecting 40% of the 10,000 tonnes of waste generated daily.
2. Only 13% of waste is recycled.
3. Air pollution levels are 500 times higher than the recommended limit, contributing to congestion and economic losses for businesses.

1. An annual upgrading program for squatter settlements.
2. Increased street lighting to enhance safety at night.
3. The Makoko Floating School was created to provide education for local children.

Rural-urban migration is the main driver of population growth in Lagos over the past 50 years.

Push factors include lack of job opportunities, low wages, poor education and health services, unpredictable climate, droughts and floods, low farming wages, land shortages, land degradation, and political unrest.

Pull factors include the prospect of well-paid work and the attraction of an urban lifestyle.

The high rate of natural increase is due to the city's youthful population, as most migrants to the city are young, leading to higher birth rates than death rates.

Despite urbanization, the rural population continues to grow, although the majority is expected to become urban within the next few years due to ongoing rural-urban migration.

One reason is climate; warmer areas, like southern England, attract more people compared to colder regions like Scotland, leading to higher population density in the south.

Higher average incomes, such as London's £35,000 compared to Scotland's £20,000, act as a pull factor, attracting people to live in areas with better job opportunities and quality of life, resulting in higher population density in those regions.

London generates around 22% of the UK's GDP, highlighting its national importance.

Airports like Gatwick and Heathrow help maintain London's status as a tourist destination and facilitate global connections, contributing to its international importance.

Londinium, established by the Romans in 43 AD, became the capital of the Roman colony in Britain and a coastal port, which was crucial for trade and manufacturing growth in London.

Towards the end of the 20th century, London's role as a port significantly declined, leading to population movement to the suburbs as employment opportunities shifted.

Approximately 47% of London consists of green space, and it recently became the world's first National Park City, emphasizing its commitment to sustainability and quality of life.

London has a population of approximately 8 million people, accounting for nearly half (49.86%) of all UK visits, making it a major urban center.

Pull factors include:

1. Healthcare: More healthcare centres and hospitals with a better range of medicines.
2. Education: 68% of Lagos's population has a secondary education, compared to 40% in rural northern areas who don't attend primary school.
3. Electricity: Availability of electricity for cooking and lighting, enabling business development.
4. Water Supply: Water treatment plants provide safe, piped water.
5. Economic Opportunities: Better job prospects in growing industries, construction jobs, and presence of banks and manufacturing industries.

In Lagos, 68% of the population has a secondary education, while in rural areas, 40% of the population does not even attend primary school, indicating a significant disparity in educational access.

Economic opportunities in Lagos include:

1. Job Availability: Many people migrate from rural Nigeria to Lagos in search of better jobs due to poverty in rural areas.
2. Construction Jobs: Rapid city growth leads to numerous construction jobs, such as those for the new commercial centre, Eko Atlantic.
3. Industry Presence: Lagos hosts many banks, government departments, and manufacturing industries, including food and drink production.

Electricity in Lagos allows for cooking and lighting, which not only improves living conditions but also enables residents to develop businesses, making urban life more attractive compared to rural areas.

Water treatment plants in Lagos provide safe, piped water directly to urban areas, which is a crucial factor in attracting residents from rural areas where access to clean water may be limited.

London's population was 1 million in 1801 and is predicted to reach 10 million by 2030.

London has a higher proportion of young people compared to the whole of England, contributing to its economy and a higher rate of natural increase.

The two types of migration are national migration (internal migration within the country) and international migration (movement across national borders).

Reasons for international migration to London include better job opportunities, education, and escaping conflict or persecution.

The Black Caribbean families have the highest concentration in inner city London, particularly in boroughs like Hackney and Lambeth.

Post-World War II, migration to London was influenced by the arrival of people from Commonwealth countries such as India, Pakistan, and the Caribbean.

Positive impacts include increased cultural diversity, filling labor market gaps, contributing to economic growth, and driving regeneration of certain areas.

Economic opportunities in Shoreditch include:

1. The emergence of high-tech jobs at Silicon Roundabout.
2. Job opportunities in the creative industry, such as web design and filmmaking.
3. Increased income generation in the tertiary sector due to the growth of pubs, bars, and restaurants.

Challenges of gentrification in Shoreditch include:

1. Original residents can no longer afford rising rents.
2. High demand for housing leading to overcrowding.
3. Loss of traditional East End industry and community feel.

The median age in Shoreditch has lowered to 31 due to the influx of young professionals attracted by job opportunities in the creative industries and the vibrant social scene, including art, pubs, and restaurants.

Gentrification is the process where a poor neighborhood is improved by middle-class people moving in, often displacing original residents. In Shoreditch, it has led to rising rents and the transformation of the area into a vibrant neighborhood, but at the cost of displacing some of the original working-class population.

Urbanization in Nigeria, particularly in Lagos, has led to improvements in:

• Education: Better access to educational facilities.
• Health Care: Enhanced health services and facilities.
• Employment Opportunities: Increased job availability and economic activities.

Life expectancy in Nigeria has shown a general upward trend from around 37 years in 1960 to approximately 54 years in 2014. However, there was a period of stagnation between 1978 and 1998 where growth was relatively flat.

Lagos has significantly contributed to Nigeria's development, with indicators such as life expectancy and wealth being above the national average due to better education, health care, and employment opportunities available in the city.

• Cultural mix: Diverse communities and cultural exchanges.
• Recreation and entertainment: Development of leisure facilities and cultural venues.
• Employment: New job opportunities in various sectors, especially services.
• Integrated transport systems: Improved connectivity and accessibility for residents and businesses.

1. More job opportunities: Availability of secondary and tertiary sector jobs.
2. Better services: Improved access to healthcare and education.

• High population density: Contributes to traffic congestion.
• Old vehicles: Many vehicles lack modern technology to reduce emissions, leading to higher particulate emissions and dirtier exhaust.

• The London Docklands Development Corporation (LDDC) was established from 1981 to 1998.
• Aimed to attract private investments to utilize dockland areas.
• Cost of regeneration was £1.8 billion.
• Created new economic opportunities and jobs to replace those lost when the docks closed.

• Significant growth in the service sector, particularly in professional, real estate, and business services.
• Attraction of financial firms and high-tech industries due to low rents.
• Decline in traditional manufacturing jobs, with very few factories remaining in London.

• Deindustrialisation: Reduction in industrial activity as industries moved to Asia.
• Containerisation: New container ships required larger docks, leading to the closure of the old docks in the 1970s.
• Increased efficiency and reduced need for labor as machines took over many jobs.

Lagos contributes significantly to Nigeria's film industry, serving as its center.

• Unhygienic conditions: Poor sanitation systems attract pests like rats and flies.
• Lack of infrastructure: Insufficient toilets and taps lead to disease spread.
• Government funding: Many governments lack the financial resources to build and maintain adequate sanitation facilities as cities grow rapidly.

In Nigeria, there are an average of 0.4 doctors per 1000 people, while in the UK, there are 2.6 doctors per 1000 people. However, healthcare in Lagos is better than in rural areas, with greater access to doctors, clinics, and hospitals.

The Lagos State Government offers basic education for the first 9 years to all children. Lagos is home to over ten universities and training colleges, making education a significant pull factor for people moving from rural areas.

Lagos offers a reasonable water supply compared to rural areas. Many residents access freshwater by digging wells, using public taps, or buying from vendors. Wealthier residents have piped water to their homes, and the Lagos Water Corporation claims to supply over 12 million people with water.

Despite better access to energy in Lagos compared to rural areas, there are frequent power cuts affecting industry and services. Approximately 80% of the population relies on diesel generators, which contribute to air pollution. The Future Proofing Lagos - Energy Sector project aims to increase energy access from 60% to 100%, with at least 20% from renewable sources.

Economic growth in Lagos has led to improvements in infrastructure, including roads and transportation, and has attracted major corporations, enhancing services and job opportunities.

The spiral of decline refers to a situation where one negative event leads to a series of worsening conditions, such as closed docks leading to job losses, reduced tax revenue, and decreased investment in the area.

London faces significant transport challenges, including:

1. Ranked as the 7th worst city in the world for traffic jams.
2. Drivers spend an average of 227 hours each year in traffic.
3. An additional 53 minutes on average is spent in rush hour traffic.

Passenger journeys in London increased from 1,089 million in 2008 to 1,265 million in 2014, driven by rapid population growth and increased work opportunities. This trend is expected to continue in the future due to ongoing population growth.

The Crossrail project is expected to:

1. Reduce journey times significantly (e.g., Liverpool Street to Heathrow from over 1 hour to 35 minutes).
2. Increase rail passenger journeys by 10%, adding an extra 200 million journeys annually.
3. Bring an additional 1.5 million people within a 45-minute commute to central London.
4. Improve the integrated transport system with more interchanges.
5. Raise property values by about 25% around stations along the route.
6. Encourage regeneration and provide access to more jobs.
7. Enhance access for disabled individuals at new stations.

Urban greening can create opportunities in UK cities by:

1. Enhancing aesthetic appeal and quality of life for residents.
2. Providing safe routes for walkers and cyclists, promoting healthier lifestyles.
3. Creating green spaces that can be used for recreation and community events.
4. Increasing property values in areas with improved green infrastructure.
5. Supporting biodiversity and improving environmental conditions.

The proposed development for the old railway viaduct in Leeds aims to convert it into a green route into the city center, featuring:

• A safe pathway for walkers and cyclists.
• Areas designated as parks for community use.

The Port of Lagos, being one of Africa's largest and busiest ports, specializes in maritime and logistics, oil and gas, and manufacturing. It is critical for Nigeria's import and export activities, enhancing trade and attracting substantial investments that fuel economic growth across the city.

Ikeja Industrial Estate serves as a central manufacturing hub, hosting a wide range of industries from food and beverages to textiles and pharmaceuticals. Its strategic location boosts local employment and contributes significantly to the city's Gross Domestic Product (GDP).

Agbara Industrial Estate is known for its modern infrastructure and hosts many multinational and local companies in sectors such as fast-moving consumer goods (FMCG), pharmaceuticals, and electronics. It plays a vital role in attracting foreign direct investment and advancing technological growth in the region.

The Lekki Free Zone offers incentives such as tax reliefs and customs duty exemptions to attract a mix of international and local investors in sectors like high-tech, oil and gas, and manufacturing, aiming to elevate Lagos's economic status through job creation and technological innovation.

Transport improvements can help reduce congestion and air pollution, significantly decrease travel time, and enhance social and economic conditions for residents.

The opening of Crossrail increased the number of rail passenger journeys in London by 10%, equating to an additional 200 million journeys per year, benefiting the city socially and economically.

Disadvantages included the high cost of £19 billion, which was funded by taxes potentially burdening poorer families, and the environmental pollution created during construction.

Benefits include positive impacts on mental health, promotion of healthy lifestyles, increased property values, job creation in landscaping, and improved air quality.

Almost half of London, 47%, is green space, and it has recently become the world's first National Park City.

Green spaces improve air quality by absorbing CO₂, provide natural drainage to alleviate flood risks, and offer habitats for diverse plant and animal populations.

Murtala Muhammed International Airport, originally known as Lagos Airport, is the main arrival point for 80% of flights to West Africa and serves as the main base for Nigeria's largest airline, Arik Air. In 2015, it facilitated over 7 million passengers.

Industrial growth in Lagos has transformed it into a major industrial powerhouse, creating hundreds of thousands of jobs. The growing population provides a workforce and market for goods and services, leading to high demand for services and retail.

From 2000 to 2016, the employment structure in Nigeria shows a decrease in the Primary Industry from around 70% to approximately 30%, a slight increase in the Secondary Industry from about 10% to around 20%, and a rise in the Tertiary Industry from about 20% to roughly 50%.

Factors encouraging industry to locate in Lagos include excellent transport links, a growing and skilled workforce, high income levels per head, and an increasing number of schools and universities that enhance education.

As a country develops, there is a trend of more workforce employment in the tertiary industry and a decrease in employment in the primary industry, reflecting a shift towards service-oriented economies.

• Grow plants, flowers, or small trees in gardens, balconies, or window boxes.
• Support community gardens by volunteering or donating to urban gardening projects.

• Create Green Roofs and Walls to increase biodiversity and reduce the urban heat island effect.
• Increase Urban Parks and Green Spaces by converting unused land into parks and community gardens.
• Develop Green Corridors to connect existing parks and improve air quality.
• Plant Native Trees and Plants through large-scale tree planting campaigns.

Urban change has led to significant social and economic challenges, including:

• Inequalities in housing, education, health, and employment.
• A stark contrast between affluent areas like Chelsea and Kensington and deprived areas like Newham, highlighting disparities in quality of life.

The Index of Multiple Deprivation combines seven different factors into one score, which includes:

1. Income
2. Employment
3. Education
4. Health
5. Crime
6. Barriers to housing and services
7. Living environment

The multiplier effect refers to the process where initial economic growth leads to increased demand for workers, services, and goods, which in turn stimulates further growth and development in the area. This cycle includes increased demand for food, accommodation, and industry, ultimately attracting more people and investment.

Lagos contributes significantly to the Nigerian economy through its role as a major commercial hub, attracting investment, creating jobs, and driving demand for various services and goods. This growth enhances overall economic activity and development in Nigeria.

Shoreditch has a diverse cultural mix, primarily due to the influx of Bangladeshi immigrants who moved into the area, particularly around Brick Lane. This diversity emerged as people left the area, which was once a rundown industrial zone, and new creative industries attracted younger populations.

The cultural mix in Shoreditch creates opportunities through the Silicon Roundabout, which attracts investments from large companies, leading to more job creation. Additionally, the presence of Bengali street food draws tourists to the area.

The London Docklands Development Corporation (LDDC) was established to revitalize the Docklands area, which had suffered from deindustrialisation and containerisation. The LDDC aimed to create economic benefits and improve the area.

The Docklands project led to significant growth in the service sector while manufacturing declined. Low rents attracted high-tech companies, resulting in increased job opportunities in the area.

1. Positive impact on health: Reduces stress and improves concentration.
2. Physical benefits: Provides space for outdoor activities.
3. Improves air quality: Trees photosynthesize, enhancing the environment.

Strategies to enhance London's greenery include:

1. Green roofs and walls
2. Increasing urban parks and green spaces
3. Developing green corridors
4. Planting native trees and plants

Shoreditch offers a variety of recreational and entertainment options, including the redeveloped Spitalfields market with new shopping areas, street food stalls, bars, restaurants, and independent traders showcasing handcrafted goods, artworks, fashion, and jewelry.

The integrated transport system in London consists of a network of different transport modes that connect with each other, promoting public transport use to reduce traffic congestion and CO2 emissions.

Crossrail, also known as the Elizabeth Line, runs from Reading to Essex. Advantages include reduced journey times and a 10% increase in rail passenger journeys in London. However, it cost £19 billion, which is a significant disadvantage.

Chelsea and Kensington are less deprived than Newham. For instance, children in Chelsea and Kensington are four times more likely to attend university, and 80% achieve 5+ GCSE grades, compared to 62% in Newham. Economically, Newham has a 9.8% unemployment rate versus 3.9% in Chelsea and Kensington, and 26% of Newham households earn below £15,000, while Chelsea and Kensington have 26% earning above £60,000.

London faces a challenge of environmental dereliction as its population grows by about 100,000 people per year, but only about 20,000 new homes are being built annually, leading to a housing shortage.

Brownfield sites are previously developed land that may have been occupied by permanent structures, while greenfield sites refer to undeveloped land that has not been used before, typically in rural areas but can also be within urban settings.

Lagos contributes 30% to Nigeria's GDP.

Lagos is home to only 10% of Nigeria's population.

Most of Nigeria's manufacturing and service industries, including finance, are based in Lagos.

The new city being constructed is called Eko Atlantic.

The project is privately funded by South Energy Nigeria Limited, a subsidiary of the Chagoury Group, in partnership with the Lagos State Government and supported by the Federal Government of Nigeria.

The unemployment rate in Lagos was 9.9% in 2015.

Jobs in the informal economy include shoe shining, waste recycling, and street vending.

The Olusosun landfill is the largest dump in Africa and one of the largest in the world, receiving up to 10,000 tons of rubbish each day.

The landfill receives a substantial portion of electronic waste from around 500 container ships.

The treatment of some materials with chemicals releases toxic fumes.

• Reduces pressure on greenfield sites, promoting sustainability.
• Creates more job opportunities, boosting the local economy.

• Interferes with biodiversity as it disrupts animal habitats.
• Not sustainable due to increased pressure on the rural-urban fringe.

Urban regeneration is the investment of capital in the revival of old urban areas by improving existing structures or clearing them away and rebuilding.

• Presence of large areas of unused derelict industrial land.
• Availability of large amounts of open space for development.
• Low residential disruption due to minimal existing residents.
• Newham borough has high deprivation and unemployment rates.

• Improvement of existing infrastructure.
• Creation of new employment opportunities.
• Enhancement of local amenities and public spaces.
• Attraction of new residents and businesses to the area.

Urban regeneration can lead to increased local business activity, job creation, and improved property values, contributing positively to the local economy.

Residents work at the dump scavenging for scrap to sell.

The Olusosun landfill, once on the outskirts, is now surrounded by commercial and residential areas due to Lagos's massive expansion.

The area has shops, restaurants, bars, cinemas, and a mosque.

Residents sort 3,000 tonnes of waste by hand each day.

Methane builds up under the waste and can be harnessed for energy.

The project is planned to produce 25MW of electricity.

Urbanization has widened the gap between the rich and the poor, with over 60% of the population living in squatter settlements.

Most residents of Makoko earn as little as $1.25 per day, working in the informal economy.

Sustainable urban development is planned to reduce pollution and waste, efficiently use non-renewable resources, and enhance natural and historic environments for future generations.

The Olympic Park Site, which was largely polluted brownfield land, was cleaned to create the largest urban park in Europe.

Around 12,000 new permanent jobs were created in the Olympic Park, along with thousands of temporary jobs.

£17bn was spent on transport improvements, including extensions to the Docklands Light Railway and East London rail lines.

The Olympic Village has been converted into affordable housing, with a total of 9,000 new homes built, mainly offered to key workers like teachers and nurses.

Five of the new sports venues have remained for use by the local community, and there is a new school for 1,800 students.

The commitments include conserving biodiversity, producing zero waste, minimizing carbon emissions, and promoting environmental awareness.

Urban sprawl leads to increased traffic and pollution, loss of greenbelt lands, and rising house prices.

The site was chosen due to its open space, derelict land that required no buildings to be demolished, existing industry, and good transport access.

The new postcode E20 signifies the development and regeneration of the area, marking it as a distinct community within London.

Greenbelt is land with strict planning controls established in 1947 to prevent urban sprawl, helping to preserve farmlands, woodlands, and parklands around London.

A commuter settlement is a residential area, such as a village or town, where most people live but travel elsewhere for work, rather than working locally.

Approximately 4000 people die prematurely in London each year due to long-term exposure to air pollution.

Smog is a mixture of fog and atmospheric pollutants, particularly sulfur, produced by the burning of poor quality coal.

The main contributors to air pollution in London include:

1. Tall buildings that trap air and pollution between them.
2. Emissions from vehicles.
3. Dense road networks.
4. Heating systems.

The pollution levels in London vary, with outer London having lower pollution levels of around 30 µg/m³, while the center has higher levels, reaching about 70 µg/m³ of nitrogen dioxide.

Informal settlements, also known as squatter settlements, are collections of buildings where people have no legal rights to the land. They are commonly found in all cities of low-income and newly emerging countries worldwide.

Homes in informal settlements are often constructed from scrap materials, including:

• Wood
• Plastic sheeting
• Corrugated metal Over time, more sophisticated materials may be used to improve housing quality.

Informal settlements are also referred to as:

• Shantytowns
• Favelas
• Barrios
• Slums

The 13 squatter settlements in Lagos are:

1. Agege
2. Ajegunle
3. Amukoko
4. Badia
5. Bariga
6. Bodija
7. Ijeshatedo/Itire
8. Ilaje
9. Iwaya
10. Makoko
11. Mushin
12. Oke-Offa Babasale
13. Somolu

The daily fee is £18 if paid in advance or on the day, increasing to £21 if paid by midnight of the third day after travel.

• Reduced traffic and faster journeys (congestion dropped by 30% and vehicles by 18% within the first year)
• Lower CO2 emissions and better air quality
• Funding for public transport (raised £2.6 billion for buses and underground improvements)
• Safer streets
• Encourages sustainable travel

• Financial burden on low-income drivers
• Traffic displacement leading to increased congestion and pollution in surrounding areas
• Negative impact on local businesses due to shoppers avoiding the area
• Increased harmful NO₂ levels from some diesel vehicles
• High administrative and surveillance costs for maintaining the system

Cycle Superhighways are high-quality cycle routes that link communities, businesses, and destinations across London, making it easier and safer for cyclists of all levels.

• Zero-emission, on-demand transport alternative for short journeys
• Cost-effective (£3 day pass for unlimited 60-minute rides)
• Ideal for short, one-way journeys across central and inner London
• Extensive network of docking stations, especially in the city center

• Bikes are heavy and not designed for high speeds, making uphill climbs difficult
• Docks can be full during peak commuting hours
• Limited options in outer areas of London
• Must return bikes to designated docking stations, unlike free-floating alternatives

• Water and energy conservation
• Waste recycling
• Creation of green spaces

Counter-urbanisation is the process where people move out of cities to rural areas to escape negative inner city factors. This is leading to population decline in some HIC cities, while others are experiencing urban sprawl as suburbs grow outward.

Regeneration makes inner city zones more attractive by encouraging new businesses, housing, and leisure facilities, often in areas previously used for industry, such as the Olympic Park in Stratford, Newham.

Informal settlements are areas where people live without formal housing or infrastructure, often found in locations undesirable to wealthier residents, such as marshlands and near industrial areas.

The population density in informal settlements in Lagos is very high due to the limited availability of land for building.

The six distinct villages in the Makoko area are Oko Agbon, Adogbo, Migbewhe, Yanshiwhe, Sogunro, and Apollo.

In the floating communities of Makoko, homes are built on stilts on the edge of the Lagos Lagoon.

It is estimated that approximately 250,000 people live in Makoko.

Homes in Makoko are built from materials such as wood and metal sheets.

Most residents of Makoko work in the informal economy or earn a living by fishing.

Residents have laid pipes to bring in clean water from boreholes in neighboring Sogunro, paying a modest fee for the service.

The Makoko Floating School is a popular community building designed by architect Kunlé Adeyemi.

Doctors Without Borders opened a floating clinic in Makoko in January 2011.

Today, Makoko is served by a network of informal, unregistered clinics that attend to basic health needs.

Most residents in Lagos obtain fresh water through street vendors selling water in containers, as only 10% have access to treated piped water.

Only 10% of the population of Lagos has access to treated piped water.

In 2016, the daily water demand in Lagos was 724 million gallons, while production was only 317 million gallons, resulting in a gap of 407 million gallons.

The water in the lagoon is unsuitable for drinking because it is salty and polluted.

In 2012, the Badia settlement, a swampland area on the edge of the city's Apapa Port, was one of the worst-hit targets of demolition, resulting in more than 15,000 people losing their homes.

Residents of Lagos face challenges such as lack of clean water, inadequate sanitation, and energy shortages.

The Lagos State Water Regulatory Commission regulates water supply vendors and issues licenses for boreholes.

Only ten percent of Lagos's population receives clean water from water treatment plants.

The risks include extracting contaminated water, pollution from sewage, and salt water intrusion from the lagoon, which can make the water unsuitable for drinking.

Sea-level rise increases the risk of salt water intrusion, making groundwater unsuitable for drinking.

Open drains transport surface runoff into rivers and the lagoon, which is often polluted by sewage.

The main causes of water pollution in Lagos include:

• Lack of effective sewerage systems
• Sewage washed away by rainwater into open drains
• Pollutants reaching groundwater through leaking septic tanks and pit latrines
• Contamination of water in wells and boreholes
• Water sold by street vendors being affected due to shared sources

Despite Nigeria's vast oil reserves, energy is a significant challenge in Lagos. Many residents, especially large organizations and wealthier individuals, rely on backup generators due to inconsistent power supply. New power stations are being developed, including one powered by methane from the Olusosun landfill site, to address these energy challenges.

Residents of Lagos face several healthcare challenges, including:

• Healthcare provision is better than in rural areas but not always free.
• Long waiting times to see a doctor.
• Vaccinations for children often require payment.
• Investments in healthcare are not keeping pace with rapid population growth.
• Increased risk of diseases such as typhoid and malaria, particularly in squatter settlements.

The 'brain drain' leads to considerable stress on healthcare provision in Lagos as many doctors and nurses relocate to more economically developed countries, such as the UK.

In poorer areas, many children have to work to support their families, and secondary school places are very limited and mostly private.

Unemployment is low at just below 10 percent, but with no unemployment benefits, many people work in the informal sector, which comprises approximately 40% of the workforce.

Jobs in the informal sector include waste recycling (like the Olusosun landfill site), car washing, and street vending. These jobs are often dangerous, poorly paid, and unregulated.

The Employment Trust Fund was established in 2016 to provide loans that help individuals become self-employed.

Lagos faces high crime rates involving drugs, vandalism, theft, corruption, bribery, assault, and armed robbery, with a notable presence of street gangs known as 'Area Boys'.

The 'Area Boys' gang recruits children as young as 8-9 years old, with most members being in their 20s.

Gangs in Lagos make money from:

• Street sales of drugs
• Thievery
• Protection rackets
• Taxing residents

Only 40% of the 10,000 tonnes of daily waste produced in Lagos is collected. The uncollected waste accumulates in many parts of the city, particularly in poorer areas.

Only 13% of the collected waste is recycled by approximately 500 informal workers who collect and sell materials such as plastic bottles and clothing.

Air pollution in Lagos is primarily caused by:

• Poorly maintained vehicles
• Unregulated vehicles on the roads It is often five times higher than the international recommended limit.

Water pollution in Lagos is significantly caused by:

• Industrial waste
• Domestic sewage

Lagos is one of the most congested cities in the world, with commuters spending an average of three hours in traffic each day.

The fatal accident rate in Lagos is 28 per 100,000 people, which is three times greater than in most European cities.

Air pollution in Lagos is over five times greater than the recommended limit.

The Lagos Metropolitan Area Transport Authority introduced a bus rapid transport (BRT) system with a separate bus lane.

The BRT system transports 200,000 commuters to Lagos Island's central business district (CBD).

The LRMT carries seven times as many passengers as the BRT and includes the Blue Line running from a west-east route into the CBD.

The Red Line, which runs north-south across the city, is planned to open in 2024.

The Strategic Transport Master Plan for Lagos aims to improve transportation infrastructure and reduce congestion in the city.

• An integrated transport system linking rail, road, and waterways
• A waterway network to transport commuters on ferries
• Dedicated bus lanes and more efficient roads
• Mixed land use developments, combining residential and commercial properties to reduce commuting
• A new airport on the Lekki peninsula
• Improved provision for pedestrians and cyclists

Urban planning in Lagos aims to address the population growth by:

1. Creating new floating communities to utilize the vast water surrounding Lagos.
2. Developing sustainable structures like the Makoko Floating School, which adapts to the aquatic lifestyle of residents.
3. Implementing mixed land use developments to reduce commuting times.

The Makoko Floating School is a prototype floating school built in 2014 that:

• Holds classrooms for 60 children at a time.
• Serves as a community center when not in use for lessons.
• Utilizes local materials such as bamboo and timber, reflecting the community's culture and needs.
• Is designed to adapt to the aquatic lifestyle of the residents.

The primary materials used in the construction of the Makoko Floating School include:

• Wood (for structure, support, and finishing)
• Bamboo
• Timber

The design of the Makoko Floating School features:

• A triangular A-Frame structure
• Approximately 1,000 square feet of play area

The Makoko Floating School is a structure built on water, primarily constructed from wood and bamboo, and supported by plastic barrels. It has a distinctive A-frame shape and a blue triangular roof.

In 2016, the Makoko Floating School collapsed due to heavy rain. Fortunately, no one was injured as students and teachers had been relocated three months earlier due to safety concerns.

The design of the Makoko Floating School is environmentally sustainable and serves as a prototype for developing similar structures. It can support communities facing rising sea levels due to climate change.

Lagos faces several challenges in the twenty-first century, including:

1. Population growth - Predicted to reach 40 million by 2035, making it one of the world's top three megacities.

Lagos is already four times more crowded than London.

The sea is expected to rise by around one metre, which poses a threat to low-lying areas of Lagos.

Lagos lacks the infrastructure to deliver safe, clean, and affordable water to its population, despite receiving 2000mm of rainfall per year.

The supply of electricity in Lagos is very unreliable; wealthy residents use their own generators while the poor rely on other forms of energy.

Makoko faces issues such as flooding, lack of proper infrastructure, and essential services due to its location on the waterfront and below sea level.

Urban planning initiatives have focused on improving infrastructure and essential services in Makoko, addressing the challenges faced by its residents.

The main challenges faced by Makoko include:

1. Lack of Basic Services: Inadequate access to clean water, sanitation facilities, and waste management, leading to health problems.
2. Substandard Housing: Most structures are made of wood, vulnerable to natural hazards, and lack basic safety and resilience features.

The Lagos Metropolitan Development and Governance Project (LMDGP) is an initiative launched in 2007 with a World Bank loan of two hundred million US dollars. It aims to upgrade infrastructure in nine informal settlements, including Makoko, focusing on improving roads, drainage, water supply, sanitation, and public amenities.

The Makoko Floating School, built in 2013, is an innovative educational facility designed to adapt to the area's flooding challenges. It serves as both a school and a community hub, showcasing how resilient design can address local needs.

The key components of the Makoko market upgrading project included:

1. Clearing waste - Removing debris and waste from the market area.
2. Paving the market area - Improving the surface for better accessibility.
3. Constructing modern stalls - Building new stalls to enhance the market's functionality and appeal.

These steps collectively supported local economic growth.

Community involvement was central to the urban planning projects, with efforts made to engage residents in planning and implementation to ensure that changes met their needs and could be maintained locally.

Attempts to clear areas of informal housing without consulting local residents led to conflict.

Urban planning initiatives in Makoko have led to improved access to clean water and sanitation, reducing the prevalence of waterborne diseases.

The installation of boreholes and mobile toilets has increased access to clean water and sanitation for residents, contributing to better health outcomes.

Improvements in Makoko include:

• Better Infrastructure: Rehabilitation of roads and construction of drainage systems to alleviate flooding and improve mobility.
• Educational Opportunities: The Makoko Floating School has enhanced educational access for children, improving attendance and fostering community pride.
• Economic Growth: Upgrading of the Makoko market has improved trading conditions and increased economic activity, especially for local traders, particularly women.

The Lagos Bus Rapid Transit (BRT) system aims to provide an affordable, reliable, and efficient mode of transport for the growing population of Lagos, particularly benefiting the urban poor.

The Lagos BRT system was introduced in 2008 and is significant as it is the first BRT system in sub-Saharan Africa, aimed at improving public transportation and enhancing the quality of life for urban residents.

Urban planning initiatives in Makoko have contributed to community resilience by addressing critical issues such as flooding, inadequate infrastructure, and lack of services through community involvement and innovative solutions, leading to a more sustainable future.

Lagos faces significant challenges including severe traffic congestion, pollution, and inadequate public transportation options. These issues disproportionately affect the urban poor, limiting their access to job opportunities, education, and healthcare services.

The BRT system in Lagos was launched in 2008.

The major cities indicated on the map include London, Glasgow, and Dublin.

The labeled bodies of water include the Atlantic Ocean, North Sea, Irish Sea, and Celtic Sea.

The map highlights island groups to the north and west of Scotland, including the Orkney Islands and Hebrides.

The grayscale gradient represents different population densities:

• Light gray: 0 to 0.2 persons per hectare
• Slightly darker gray: 0.2 to 1 persons per hectare
• Medium gray: 1 to 5 persons per hectare
• Dark gray: 5 to 10 persons per hectare
• Darker gray: 10 to 20 persons per hectare
• Black: >20 persons per hectare

Higher population densities are concentrated in areas around London, Birmingham, and other major cities.

Scotland and Wales are less densely populated than England.

82 percent of the UK population lives in cities, indicating that the UK is one of the most urbanised countries in the world.

Low-income countries (LICs), such as Nigeria, are still rapidly urbanizing today, while the UK underwent urbanization during the nineteenth and twentieth centuries. The UK has a more established urban infrastructure compared to LICs that are currently experiencing significant urban growth.

The UK's population density is 260 people per square kilometre (km2), with variations such as about 5,000/km2 in London and less than 10/km2 in northern Scotland. This makes the UK more densely populated than France but less than the Netherlands.

Upland areas, such as northern Scotland, are sparsely populated due to difficult building conditions, a cold and wet climate, challenges in farming, and a lack of natural resources.

High population density in coastal locations, particularly near estuaries, is due to the ability to construct harbours, which historically supported the fishing industry and the development of trading ports.

Urban areas in the UK have developed around large reserves of natural resources, such as iron ore and coal, with cities like Newcastle and Leeds being examples where resource availability has influenced urban growth.

The most densely populated areas in the UK are typically found in low-lying regions, such as coastal or riverside locations, where cities have historically grown due to farming, trade, and industrial support.

The South East of England is experiencing the most significant economic growth.

London has seen the most significant increase in population, with over a million new residents.

Sunderland is the only major UK city experiencing a population decline.

The decline of industry and job loss have forced residents to move away in search of work.

London is the UK's capital and the largest city, with a population of 8.8 million people.

London is located in the southeast of England on the River Thames.

The City of London spans 1.1 square miles (2.9 square km).

Greater London reaches up to 45 miles (70 km) from its center.

The City of London is a small area within the larger metropolitan area of Greater London, which has a substantially larger population.

Greater London is an administrative area governed by the Greater London Authority. It is organized into 32 local government districts, known as boroughs, along with the City of London.

According to the 2021 Census, Greater London had a population of 8.8 million, which represents an increase of 7.7% since 2011.

London was established in 43AD when the Romans conquered the south of England. They constructed a walled settlement named Londinium on the north bank of the Thames, which became the capital of the Roman colony in Britain.

1. London became a port due to the Thames being a tidal river.
2. It was constructed at the lowest bridging point on the Thames, which is the widest point where a bridge can be built.

The first bridge allowed for easier access and trade, facilitating London's growth as a port and a center for commerce.

The new docks increased the number of ships using London as a port, leading to growth in trade, commerce, and the development of new manufacturing industries.

Many people migrated from rural areas to London, leading to an increase in the city's population.

London's role as a port significantly declined, but it continued to be a hub for the UK's transport network, with both rail and road networks focusing on the city.

London is the UK's largest and wealthiest city, serving as a major financial, cultural, and political center. It plays a crucial role in connecting the UK to global markets and influences international trade and finance.

London is important due to its significant economic contributions, being the center of finance and commerce. The city has seen a rapid increase in wages and house prices, highlighting its economic growth compared to the rest of the UK.

London's financial district generates around 22% of the UK's GDP.

London is considered a world city because it is important not only nationally but also on the international stage, being one of the two most important financial centres in the world alongside New York.

The two major financial districts in London are the Square Mile (or the City) and Canary Wharf.

London represents one-third of higher education institutions nationally.

London attracts highly skilled workers from across the globe due to its status as a major financial centre and the presence of many international and British companies.

London is also a national and international centre for education, media and communications, medical and legal facilities, culture, tourism, and entertainment.

London has the second-best global air connections in the world after Dubai, supported by its two busiest airports, Gatwick and Heathrow.

Forty-seven percent of London consists of green space, and it recently became the world's first National Park City through its urban greening programme.

London's population has been growing for most of the last two hundred years, reaching a peak of 8,779,800 now, after experiencing declines post-World War II.

London's population peaked at the start of World War II, then declined due to bombing during the war, housing demolitions, and people moving out.

London has a larger and younger population compared to other UK cities, with many young people moving to the city for work and social opportunities.

The natural population increase in London is driven by young people in their 20s and 30s having children, along with net migration from around the world.

Most immigrants to London are quite young, while most people leaving are older, which reduces the population's average age and leads to a natural increase.

Less than half of London's population is of white British origin, making it the most diverse city in the UK.

Migration has led to the establishment of multicultural communities and vibrant cultural enclaves, enriching London's social fabric with diverse cultures, languages, and traditions.

Migration to London has been influenced by various historical events, including Roman settlement, Saxon and Norman invasions, and significant immigration from former British colonies and Commonwealth countries post-World War II.

The expansion of the EU in the 2000s led to an influx of migrants from Eastern European countries, particularly Poland and Romania, seeking employment opportunities in London.

Migrants have filled gaps in the labour market, particularly in healthcare, hospitality, construction, and finance sectors, bringing valuable skills and entrepreneurship that contribute to economic growth.

Population growth driven by migration has influenced housing, services, and infrastructure demand, transforming the city's physical landscape.

Migration has put pressure on public services such as healthcare, education, and housing. It can also lead to tensions between different cultural groups, resulting in social integration issues.

Migrants often settle in specific areas, forming ethnic enclaves or cultural hubs, leading to the development of distinct neighborhoods with unique characteristics and amenities. This growth has driven regeneration in certain areas and influenced the city's spatial distribution.

The increased population and economic activity due to migration have placed demands on transportation systems, necessitating expansions and improvements. Cultural diversity has also influenced the demand for specific amenities and services, shaping the city's infrastructure.

Migration has led to debates on immigration policies, integration, and social cohesion. Authorities have implemented various policies to manage migration and promote community cohesion, recognizing the importance of balanced and inclusive growth.

Factors include rapid population growth, increasing ethnic diversity, a youthful population, improved accessibility through transport networks, and the reinvention of defunct industrial sites along the Thames and canals into new neighborhoods.

Shoreditch is an example of how urban change has created a cultural mix, as well as recreation and entertainment opportunities.

Shoreditch saw an influx of Bangladeshi immigrants, particularly around Brick Lane, transforming the area into a diverse ethnic population.

The old industrial structures in Shoreditch have been transformed into residential flats and office spaces, while pubs and bars have been revamped into restaurants and art galleries.

New job opportunities in Shoreditch include roles in creative industries such as web design, filmmaking, and art.

The term 'Silicon Roundabout' refers to the Old Street roundabout in London, which has become a hub for hi-tech companies, similar to Silicon Valley in California. It has attracted investments from major tech companies like Facebook, Google, and Microsoft.

Gentrification in Shoreditch has led to older residents and Bangladeshi families leaving due to rising rents and property prices. This has resulted in an influx of young professionals from industries such as finance and the arts, changing the neighborhood's demographics.

Shoreditch offers a variety of recreational and entertainment options, including bustling cafes during the day, clubs and bars at night, and vibrant street art. The area has transformed into one of London's liveliest neighborhoods.

The Spitalfields market, redeveloped in the mid-2000s, is a popular shopping area open every day. It features various retail brands, street-food stalls, bars, restaurants, and independent traders showcasing handcrafted goods, artwork, fashion, and jewellery, along with public art and events.

Shoreditch is marked as one of London's cultural hot spots, featuring street art, independent shops, and live music venues. It hosts guided street-art tours and the annual Brick Lane jazz festival.

Boxpark is the world's first pop-up mall, which opened in 2011, and is located in Shoreditch.

The changing population in Shoreditch has led to a significant increase in the diversity of food outlets, allowing people to sample a wide range of street food.

The decline of the docks in London was primarily due to the advent of container ships in the 1970s, which made the existing docks inadequate, leading to their closure by 1980 along with many related industries.

The London Docklands case study illustrates how urban change has created employment opportunities and highlights the social, economic, and environmental impacts of such changes in the area.

The LDDC was established to revitalise the area around the docks by attracting private investment.

One of the key features is Canary Wharf, which has high-rise office buildings housing international banks.

Docklands, particularly through developments like Canary Wharf, has employed over 100,000 people and worked in conjunction with the City of London to enhance its status as a major global financial centre.

In 1965, the Docklands area was characterized by a mix of industrial and commercial activity, with a network of waterways, warehouses, ships, and cranes.

London has experienced almost continuous job growth since 1994, with the number of jobs rising despite the recession that followed in 2007.

Most new jobs in London have been created in the service sector, particularly in 'Professional, real estate and business services.'

This sector includes professions such as management consulting, law, accounting, real estate agents, advertising, and market research.

There has been a decline in manufacturing jobs in London, with few factories remaining.

Crossrail is an example of how urban change has created integrated transport opportunities in London, contributing to a comprehensive travel system.

The goal of London's integrated travel system is to increase the use of public transport to help reduce traffic congestion and CO2 emissions.

The Elizabeth line links central London to the suburbs, encouraging more people to use public transport.

The Oyster Card is a travel payment method that allows users to pay quickly and efficiently on buses, trains, and tubes; it can also be used with a bank card.

The Congestion Charging Zone imposes a £15 daily fee on any vehicle traveling in central London during specified hours to encourage the use of public transport.

The bike sharing scheme offers self-hire bikes available in public places for as little as free for 30 minutes, encouraging cycling over driving to reduce traffic congestion.

London's transport system struggles to keep up with the increasing number of passengers due to population growth and more work opportunities, making public transportation essential.

The demand for public transportation in London is predicted to increase by 60 percent by 2050, necessitating long-term planning and investment.

Crossrail, launched in 2022, is a newly built rail system that connects east to west London, running underground through the city centre.

The Elizabeth line is expected to decrease travel times and bolster overall passenger capacity in London.

The projected timeline for Crossrail 2 is 2030.

Journey times from Liverpool Street to Heathrow will decrease from over an hour to just 35 minutes.

Deprivation varies across London, which is divided into 33 boroughs. These boroughs help illustrate the differences in social and economic conditions.

• Areas with higher numbers of people receiving state benefits are often more deprived.
• Life expectancy serves as a social measure of deprivation, with lower life expectancy indicating higher deprivation levels.

There is a correlation between deprivation and life expectancy in London:

• More deprived individuals tend to have lower life expectancy.
• For example, life expectancy ranges from 87.86 years in Kensington and Chelsea to 81.66 years in Barking and Dagenham, indicating that some areas are more deprived than others based on life expectancy figures.

Areas with fewer people on out-of-work benefits typically have a longer life expectancy, while areas with a high unemployment rate have a lower life expectancy.

Housing, education, health, and employment disparities continue to be significant challenges, leading to inequities in life expectancy.

In Kensington & Chelsea, the life expectancy for males is 84.18 and for females is 87.86, while in Newham, it is 78.97 for males and 83.1 for females.

Kensington & Chelsea has very few derelict areas with regenerated Victorian and Georgian houses, while Newham has mainly old tower blocks from the 1960s with poor heating systems and damp.

Newham has a higher unemployment rate at 9.4%, while Kensington & Chelsea has a low unemployment rate of 3.9%.

Children receiving free school meals in Newham achieve 1.7 grades lower at GCSE compared to their peers, with only 62% having 5+ GCSE grades.

London's population is increasing by approximately 100,000 individuals annually, but only 20,000 new residences are being constructed each year, leading to a significant housing shortage.

Property prices in London are rising more rapidly than in other parts of the country.

The housing shortage has resulted in increased homelessness and overcrowding.

The most noticeable indication of homelessness is the high number of rough sleepers on the city's streets.

Approximately 170,000 individuals are homeless in London, accounting for half of the overall homeless population in the UK.

Greenfield sites are typically undeveloped land areas, such as farmland on the outskirts of urban areas, considered for housing development to address the housing shortage.

Building on greenfield sites may result in unplanned urban growth, known as urban sprawl, and may not be well-received by rural residents.

Brownfield sites consist of previously developed land that is now abandoned and suitable for redevelopment, often former industrial areas with soil contamination, significant due to the decline of manufacturing industries in London.

A potential solution is constructing homes on greenfield sites outside the city or redeveloping brownfield sites within the city.

• Availability of sites due to the decline of heavy industry
• Reduces urban sprawl
• Less need for cars due to better public transport
• New developments can improve the environment

• Demolition of old buildings may be required
• Land may need to be decontaminated
• High demand for urban land may increase costs

In 2019, there were 3,000 brownfield sites in London, covering 2,600 hectares, most of which are unused.

Up to 50,000 new homes will be built on 20 brownfield sites in a £400m scheme announced in 2014.

• Poorer public transport links lead to increased car usage
• Urban sprawl increases
• Loss of valuable agricultural land
• Destruction of natural habitats

Urban sprawl has shifted to commuter settlements outside the green belt, such as Reading and Chelmsford, leading to rapid growth of housing estates and business parks encroaching upon the countryside.

The green belt aims to curb urban sprawl and safeguard farmland, woodland, and parkland around cities, including London.

As London's population and housing costs increase, more people relocate to commuter settlements beyond the green belt, escalating population and housing prices in the rest of South East England.

The main goal is to reduce urban sprawl by redeveloping 150 acres of brownfield land.

The project began in 1999 and is expected to be completed in 2035.

The Millennium Dome, now known as The O2, was completed in 2000.

Many saw it as very expensive and it did not attract visitors as initially hoped.

The project is estimated to cost £8.4 billion.

The project plans to create 5,720 new residential units.

The project includes entertainment avenues, public spaces with cafes and restaurants, a 5km running trail, an ecology park, and a cable car over the river.

The primary sources of air pollution in London today are emissions from road vehicles and modern heating systems, exacerbated by the city's dense road network and tall buildings that trap air.

London's pollution record is worse compared to other European cities, but it is not as severe as many Asian cities.

Nitrogen dioxide (NO2) is a harmful pollutant primarily produced by road vehicles and diesel engines, with most of central London exceeding the safe limit of 40mg/m3. It contributes to over 4,000 premature deaths in London each year due to long-term exposure.

The new cycle superhighways are designed to provide swift paths for cyclists, promote cycling, decrease traffic, and lower harmful vehicle emissions. They are expected to increase the percentage of cyclists on London's roads, which has already risen from 1% to 15% of all road users over the past five decades.

Nearly a quarter of London's waste is still disposed of in landfills outside of the city.

Landfill waste contributes to the production of methane, which adds to greenhouse gas emissions.

London aims to recycle 65% of waste by 2030, surpassing the 52% achieved in 2016.

The remaining waste will mostly be incinerated or burned to generate electricity.

The Lower Lea Valley in East London was selected as the destination for the 2012 Olympic Games.

The River Lea, a tributary of the River Thames, flows through the Olympic Park.

Before regeneration, the Lower Lea Valley was characterized by urban deprivation, with many derelict industrial sites, poor quality housing, high unemployment rates, and significant land and water contamination by chemicals.

Historically, the Lower Lea Valley was an important agricultural community known for potato growing and served as a country retreat for the wealthy from the City.

The introduction of the railway led to the creation of the Royal Docks, which initiated the industrialization of the Lower Lea Valley.

Regeneration was necessary due to high unemployment, low educational achievement, poor health, and the need for improved infrastructure and environmental quality in one of the most deprived communities in the country.

The successful bid for the 2012 London Olympics included plans for the regeneration of the area, which aimed to benefit local people after the event, leading to the development of the Queen Elizabeth Olympic Park.

Challenges included consolidating all the land under one new owner, the Olympic Delivery Authority (ODA), which was established by the government, before construction could begin.

The preparation of the site involved several key steps:

1. Demolition of old factories, industrial estates, and homes.
2. Clearance of derelict and overgrown sites.
3. Removal of electric pylons and overhead cables, with wires going underground.
4. Cleaning up contaminated soil and waterways.

The regeneration included the construction of several major facilities:

• New sports venues such as the Olympic Stadium (now London Stadium), the Aquatics Centre, and Velopark, which are open to the public and used by schools.
• A landscaped park, the Queen Elizabeth Olympic Park, which is the largest new park in London with over 100 hectares of open space.
• The Athlete's Village, converted into East Village, providing 2,800 homes for locals.
• The International Quarter, a new high-rise office development employing 25,000 people.

The London Legacy Development Corporation (LLDC) is responsible for transforming and integrating one of the most challenged areas in the UK into world-class, sustainable, and thriving neighborhoods, ensuring that the legacy of the Olympics becomes a reality.

Here East is the renamed Olympics media centre, which has become a hub for creative industries, employing 5,000 people. It plays a significant role in the economic development of the area post-Olympics.

The East Bank development is a new cultural centre in London that houses organizations such as BBC Music, Sadler's Wells Theatre, London College of Fashion, and the V&A Museum.

East Village is one of the most sustainable communities in the UK, part of the London 2012 Olympic legacy, converted from the Athletes' Village into new homes after the Games, aiming to be the most sustainable Games ever.

East Village features an integrated transport solution with local trains and bus services connecting to the London Underground, and Stratford International station providing access to Central London and Europe.

East Village includes green open spaces and modern apartment buildings with green roofs, contributing to a sustainable urban environment.

East Village has created several types of green spaces, including:

• A wetland area that recycles rainwater for flushing toilets and watering plants.
• A large green park that includes a children's play area.

37 percent of the land in East Village is designated as green open space.

The modern, high-density apartments in East Village are constructed to a high standard of energy efficiency and insulation, which allows them to lose less heat compared to low-rise housing.

Green roofs in East Village provide habitats for wildlife and help slow the flow of surface runoff from rain, contributing to environmental sustainability.

Half of the homes in East Village are available to ordinary people at lower rental rates, making housing more accessible to the local community.

East Village includes a large health center and a school for 2000 children aged 3 to 18 years, which are essential public services for the community.

There are 35 independent shops, cafes, and bars in East Village, which serve the local community and help keep money within the area.

• Green roofs
• Shared, private green spaces for each apartment block
• Fruit trees in an orchard located in the children's play area

99% of parkland waste is recycled instead of being sent to landfill.

Households are encouraged to recycle with fortnightly collections of cardboard, paper, plastic bottles, tins, and cans.

The sorted materials are made into bales and sent off to be recycled into new products.

East Village uses 50% less water than typical urban areas, achieved through natural water recycling and reed beds in wetland areas.

Combined heat and power (CHP) is used, which generates electricity and heat from the same energy source, specifically by burning biomass.

East Village uses 30% less energy than an average urban area due to the efficiency of the CHP system.

More than 10,000 new homes will have been built, and five new neighbourhoods will be completed by the end of the decade.

Over 20,000 jobs could be created, bringing £5 billion into the area due to new jobs in tourism and construction.

The Westfield Stratford shopping centre created 10,000 permanent new jobs from day one, including 2,000 for previously unemployed local people.

The Olympic bid was successfully based on sustainability, focusing on public transport, walking and cycling routes, energy-efficient design of homes, and the protection of green spaces and natural habitats.

300,000 new plants have been planted in the wetlands, contributing to the park's sustainability efforts.

The London Olympic Athletes' Village is the largest sustainable homes project in the UK.

Before construction, the Olympic Delivery Authority excavated and cleaned more than 2.3 million cubic metres of contaminated soil.

Lagos's rapid growth has led to its infrastructure struggling to keep pace with the increasing population and urban demands.

A rapid transit network is currently being constructed in Lagos to improve transportation within the city.

To tackle the electricity shortage, two new power stations are planned, which will also be used to light city streets.

Wealthy households often use generators to provide energy during power outages.

Only the wealthiest households have water piped to their homes; others rely on public taps, boreholes, or buy water from street vendors.

Squatter settlements are informal housing areas where people live without legal rights to the land, often characterized by inadequate infrastructure and services.

Minibus taxis (danfos).

By the World Bank.

Because it is safe and fast.

The main factors affecting the rate of urbanisation include:

1. Migration: Influenced by push-pull theory, where people move from rural to urban areas for better opportunities.
2. Natural Increase: The difference between the birth rate and death rate, contributing to population growth in urban areas.

The causes of growth in megacities such as Lagos include:

• Natural Increase: Higher birth rates contribute to population growth.
• Migration: People moving to the city for better economic opportunities and access to services.

Negative impacts include social integration issues, pressure on transport and infrastructure, and strain on public services like healthcare and education.

Nollywood is the thriving film and music industry in Lagos, known for producing popular films. It contributes to the job market in Lagos, which has more job opportunities than anywhere else in Nigeria.

In Lagos, individuals can work in the informal economy as street vendors or in waste recycling, where they do not pay taxes.

The push factors include:

1. Few job opportunities in rural areas.
2. Low wages in farming despite high labor demands.
3. Rapid population growth leading to a shortage of land.

In Shoreditch, ¼ of the population is non-white British, with a significant Bengali community, particularly in the East End, which has the largest Bengali population in the country.

Social opportunities in Shoreditch include:

1. A huge cultural mix, particularly in Brick Lane, known for its Bengali community and curry restaurants.
2. Increased tourism due to the vibrant cultural and linguistic diversity.
3. New entertainment venues such as bars and galleries that revive old warehouses.

Rail passenger journeys in London are expected to increase by 200 million annually due to Crossrail.

An extra 1.5 million individuals will be able to commute to work in central London within a 45-minute timeframe due to Crossrail.

Crossrail is expected to boost property values by approximately 25% in areas around stations along its path.

Crossrail will improve the transportation system in London by providing more connections with the Underground network and stimulating further regeneration throughout the city.

There are no stairs from the platform to the street level.

Urban greening is an example of how urban change has created environmental opportunities.

London boasts more extensive parks than many other cities, including royal parks like Hyde Park, which are now open to everyone.

Municipal parks were established in response to public hygiene concerns in the 19th century, as people sought fresh air.

Suburban expansion provided millions of homes with gardens for Londoners, as suburbs were built on former farmland.

Green spaces account for almost half (47%) of London's area.

Benefits of green spaces include:

• Trees provide oxygen, purify the air, and reduce global warming by absorbing carbon dioxide.
• They reduce the risk of flooding by slowing down rainwater drainage.
• Wildlife thrives in urban green spaces, with 13,000 species in London alone.
• People enjoy green spaces for physical activities such as walking, running, and cycling.
• Green spaces can be used for food production, with 30,000 allotments available in London.

Strategies for making London greener include:

• Urban greening to preserve and expand green spaces.
• Encouraging individual actions like feeding birds and not paving over gardens.
• Linking existing green spaces to facilitate natural migration patterns of species.
• Establishing a 'green grid' to connect open areas.

Being named the world's first 'National Park City' signifies London's commitment to preserving and improving its natural environment while promoting public access to parks. The charter outlines objectives such as improving health and well-being, preserving wildlife, promoting sustainable habitats, and encouraging outdoor activities.

Urban change in London has created challenges such as the reduction of green spaces due to development, leading to potential negative impacts on air quality, biodiversity, and community well-being.

Factors contributing to changes in London include:

• Rapid population growth
• Increasing ethnic diversity
• A youthful population
• Improved accessibility through motorways, roads, rail, and air connections
• Reinvention of defunct industrial sites along the Thames and canals into new neighborhoods, starting with Canary Wharf in the 1980s.

Economic and social deprivation in London refers to the lack of fundamental necessities for a decent quality of life, affecting over 2 million individuals. It includes issues such as:

• Lack of employment opportunities
• Financial instability
• Inadequate housing
• Insufficient access to essential services.

The top five origin countries of British immigrants from 1951 to 2011 are Ireland, Poland, Pakistan, India, and Jamaica.

Advantages of multicultural cities include:

1. Skilled migrants can fill gaps in the economy and services, ensuring access to healthcare.
2. Multicultural events like Chinese New Year and Notting Hill Carnival attract tourists, boosting local revenue.
3. Diverse cuisine enhances the restaurant market and promotes cultural learning from a young age.

Negative perceptions of multicultural cities include:

1. Concerns that increased immigration may lead to job scarcity and higher unemployment.
2. Targeting of certain ethnic groups for hate crimes, particularly Jewish and Muslim communities.
3. Segregation of ethnic groups in some cities, which can lead to a lack of cultural exchange and increased hostilities.

Urbanisation is the process where people move from rural areas (countryside) to urban areas (towns and cities). This typically occurs when a country is still developing.

Urban growth rates are lower in more developed countries because they have already experienced significant urbanisation, resulting in high levels of urban population (over 80%).

• Limited economic development due to farming being the main industry.
• Soil erosion from overgrazing and overcultivation.
• Pollution of land in the Niger Delta region by the oil industry.
• Low wages in farming despite high labor demands.
• Aging population left behind as younger skilled individuals migrate.
• Rural facilities not growing at the same rate as the population.
• Unpredictable weather due to climate change affecting farming.
• Political unrest and insecurity from groups like Boko Haram.

• Better education and health services available in urban areas.
• More job opportunities in cities compared to rural areas.
• Higher accessibility and quality of education leading to more skilled individuals.
• Better access to medicine for sick children in urban settings.

• Improved access to health and education services.
• Enhanced access to resources such as water supply and energy.

• Urban industrial areas can stimulate economic development by creating jobs and attracting investments, leading to overall economic growth.

• Congested roads, high crime rates, presence of street gangs, electricity shortages, and inadequate sewage systems.

• GINI increased from $2700 in 1990 to$5500 in 2015 due to more job availability.
• Life expectancy rose from 46 years to 53 years as healthcare became more accessible.
• Expected years of schooling increased from 6.6 years to 9 years due to more educational institutions.