Glucagon increases blood glucose levels.
Carbohydrate metabolism, fat digestion, breakdown of red blood cells, metabolism of amino acids, and breakdown of alcohol.
Adrenaline boosts blood glucose levels.
Mouth, salivary glands, oesophagus, stomach, duodenum, pancreas, gall bladder, liver, ileum, colon, rectum, anus.
They facilitate the breakdown of food substrates into end-products.
It traps light energy and converts it into chemical energy.
During stress or physical activity.
Reduced self-control, depressant effects, damage to liver, and social implications.
Natural selection acts as a mechanism for evolution by favoring individuals with advantageous traits, leading to changes in the population over time.
Rhythmic wave-like contractions of the muscles to mix and propel the contents of the alimentary canal.
A villus has a structure that includes capillaries and lacteals, aiding in the absorption of nutrients.
To transport blood rich in absorbed nutrients from the small intestine to the liver.
DNA carries the genetic code used to synthesize specific polypeptides.
Genes may be transferred between organisms of the same species or different species, such as in transgenic plants or animals.
Self-pollination occurs within the same flower, while cross-pollination involves different flowers.
Iodine in potassium iodide solution.
Dominant alleles mask the effect of recessive alleles in heterozygous conditions.
Translocation is the transport of food in the phloem tissue.
Carbon dioxide + Water + Light energy → Glucose + Oxygen.
The cycling of nutrients and the flow of energy.
Reproduction is vital for the survival of species across generations.
They can cause permanent damage to local and global environments.
Nicotine, tar, and carbon monoxide.
Cellular and tissue structures including chloroplasts, stomata, mesophyll cells, and vascular bundles.
Robert Hooke.
Their structure increases surface area for absorption.
Using insulin.
The hierarchy of structural order within the organism.
Light intensity, carbon dioxide concentration, and temperature.
Xylem transports water and ions; phloem transports nutrients.
James Watson and Francis Crick in 1953.
They convert sunlight into energy, forming the base of the food chain.
It consists of various components that work together to produce a focused image on the retina.
Wilting occurs when plants lose more water than they can absorb, leading to a loss of turgor pressure.
Biuret test.
A mutation is a change in the structure of a gene or in the chromosome number.
Radiation and chemicals.
Variation and competition lead to differential survival and reproduction of organisms best fitted to the environment.
Arteries have thick walls for high pressure, veins have valves to prevent backflow, and capillaries are thin for material exchange.
Coronary heart disease is the occlusion of coronary arteries, often caused by diet, stress, and smoking.
The breeding of crops like corn or animals like dogs for specific traits.
By insulin and glucagon as a homeostatic mechanism.
It is crucial for photosynthesis.
Through stomata for carbon dioxide and roots for water.
All organisms are composed of one or more cells, and those cells have arisen from pre-existing cells.
The correlation of structure to function.
Diffusion allows nutrients to move into plant roots and gases to exchange in lungs.
The gene can be inserted into bacterial DNA to produce human insulin.
Osmosis can cause plant cells to become turgid or plasmolyzed depending on the surrounding solution.
Active transport is the energy-consuming process of moving substances against a concentration gradient.
Carbonic anhydrase.
Cilia, diaphragm, ribs, and intercostal muscles.
Glucose + Oxygen → Carbon Dioxide + Water + Energy (ATP).
White blood cells are involved in phagocytosis, antibody formation, and tissue rejection.
The ABO blood groups are A, B, AB, and O.
Blood glucose levels decrease.
Root hair cells are structured to maximize absorption of water and nutrients due to their elongated shape.
A complex network of interactions between living organisms and their environment.
A gene is a sequence of nucleotides that is part of a DNA molecule.
The division of labour, enabling effective execution of vital life processes.
They vary depending on the application, such as in the case of genetically modified organisms.
The accumulation of substances, such as pesticides, in the tissues of living organisms.
Ovaries, oviducts, uterus, cervix, and vagina.
Sex is determined by the presence of XX (female) and XY (male) chromosomes.
A chemical substance produced by a gland, carried by the blood, that alters the activity of specific target organs.
It can cause muscle fatigue and discomfort.
Dialysis removes waste products and excess substances from the blood when kidneys can no longer perform this function.
In DNA, adenine pairs with thymine, and cytosine pairs with guanine.
Examples include climate, food availability, predators, and diseases.
Artificial selection is human-directed breeding for desired traits, while natural selection is driven by environmental pressures.
Increased blood glucose level and glucose in urine.
Red blood cells have a biconcave shape that increases surface area for efficient oxygen transport.
The maintenance of a constant internal environment.
Stimulus from a change in the internal environment, a corrective mechanism, and negative feedback.
Endoplasmic reticulum, mitochondria, Golgi body, and ribosomes.
A gene is a unit of inheritance.
Water is essential for biochemical reactions, temperature regulation, and transport of nutrients.
Fertilization leads to the formation of a ball of cells that becomes implanted in the wall of the uterus.
HIV is spread through unprotected sexual contact, sharing needles, and from mother to child during childbirth or breastfeeding.
Mitosis is important for growth, repair, and asexual reproduction.
Homologous pairs are chromosomes that have the same structure and carry genes for the same traits.
Reduction division (meiosis) is necessary to ensure that the resulting zygote has the correct diploid number of chromosomes.
A process that illustrates the cycling of nutrients within an ecosystem.
Hairs, sweat glands, temperature receptors, blood vessels, and fatty tissue.
Energy losses occur, affecting the efficiency of energy transfer between trophic levels.
Receptors detect stimuli and send signals to the central nervous system, which coordinates responses through effectors.
A gene is a unit of inheritance, while an allele is a variant form of a gene.
They help break down waste, exemplifying environmental biotechnology.
Carbohydrates are made up of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen.
Red blood cells transport oxygen using hemoglobin.
Plasma transports blood cells, ions, soluble food substances, hormones, carbon dioxide, urea, vitamins, and plasma proteins.
Platelets convert fibrinogen to fibrin, causing blood clotting.
Enzyme-substrate complex.
Meiosis introduces genetic variation through recombination and independent assortment, while fertilization combines genetic material from two parents.
Xylem vessels conduct water and provide support due to their hollow structure and thick walls.
The loss of water vapor from plant surfaces, a consequence of gaseous exchange.
Water is absorbed by roots, moves through xylem vessels, and reaches leaves.
Forests and oceans that absorb carbon from the atmosphere.
Larynx, trachea, bronchi, bronchioles, alveoli, and associated capillaries.
To maintain biodiversity and protect ecosystems.
They provide a large surface area for the exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide.
The amniotic sac protects the developing fetus and provides a cushioning environment.
Using the ethanol emulsion test.
Proteins are made up of carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, and nitrogen.
Continuous variation shows a range of phenotypes, while discontinuous variation has distinct categories.
The cardiac cycle includes systole (contraction) and diastole (relaxation) of the heart.
Diffusion is the movement of particles from an area of higher concentration to an area of lower concentration.
Osmosis is the movement of water across a semi-permeable membrane from an area of lower solute concentration to an area of higher solute concentration.
Through insulation, temperature receptors in the skin, sweating, shivering, blood vessels near the skin surface, and the hypothalamus.
Air movement, temperature, humidity, and light intensity.
Benedict’s solution.
Progesterone and estrogen.
The umbilical cord connects the fetus to the placenta, allowing for nutrient and gas exchange.
Glucose → Lactic Acid + Energy (ATP).
Excretion is the removal of nitrogenous and other compounds from the body, crucial for maintaining homeostasis.
It regulates osmoregulation by controlling water reabsorption in the kidneys.
Chloroplasts, cell surface membrane, cell wall, cytoplasm, cell vacuoles, and nucleus.
Testes, scrotum, sperm ducts, prostate gland, urethra, and penis.
Amniotic fluid allows for fetal movement and helps maintain a constant temperature.
The main blood vessels are arteries and veins to and from the heart, lungs, liver, and kidneys.
Glucose.
Amino acids.
The 'lock and key' hypothesis.
Temperature and pH.
The process resulting in the production of genetically identical offspring from one parent.
Sepals, petals, stamens, and carpels.
Plant cells have large, sap-filled vacuoles, while animal cells have small, temporary vacuoles.
The pollen tube grows and enters the ovule for fertilization.
Co-dominance occurs when both alleles in a heterozygote are fully expressed, such as in the ABO blood group phenotypes.
The placenta facilitates the exchange of nutrients, gases, and waste products between the mother and fetus.
Glycerol and fatty acids.
The region where the substrate binds to the enzyme.
The process involving the fusion of nuclei to form a zygote and the production of genetically dissimilar offspring.
To conduct photosynthesis in plant cells.
Active transport allows root hairs to uptake ions from the soil against the concentration gradient.
The response of the pupil to bright and dim light.
To coordinate and regulate bodily functions.
Sensory neurones transmit signals to the CNS, relay neurones connect sensory and motor neurones, and motor neurones send signals to effectors.
Fats are composed of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen.
A gland that produces hormones, such as the islets of Langerhans in the pancreas.
It ensures consistency in cell function and genetic information during growth and repair.
By stabilizing the transition state.
Preventative measures include a healthy diet, regular exercise, and avoiding smoking.
DNA is composed of nucleotides, which include a sugar, phosphate group, and nitrogenous bases.
Methods include safe sex practices, regular testing, and the use of antiretroviral therapy.
It is involved in ultra-filtration and selective reabsorption in the production of urine.
Haploid cells have one set of chromosomes, while diploid cells have two sets.
