What virus causes smallpox?
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Variola virus.
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What virus causes smallpox?
Variola virus.
What is variolation?
It is a method where material from smallpox sores was given to people who had never had smallpox.
What does the smallpox vaccine contain?
It contains live vaccinia virus, a poxvirus similar to smallpox.
When was the worldwide vaccination program for smallpox initiated?
In 1966.
In what year was smallpox eradicated?
In 1980.
What disease does Monkeypox cause symptoms similar to?
Smallpox, but less severe.
What type of virus is Monkeypox?
An enveloped double-stranded DNA virus.
To which genus does the Monkeypox virus belong?
Orthopoxvirus genus.
To which family does the Monkeypox virus belong?
Poxviridae family.
What is Poliomyelitis?
An acute infectious disease that in its serious form affects the CNS.
What results from the destruction of motor neurons in the spinal cord due to poliovirus?
Flaccid paralysis.
What has been the impact of the World Health Organization's intensive worldwide vaccination program on poliovirus?
The poliovirus is almost completely eradicated.
Why must medicines administered by injections be sterile?
Because contaminated medicines pose a safety hazard and must be free from potentially pathogenic microorganisms.
Which vaccine is being used in the global eradication program for polio?
The oral polio vaccine.
How was an antibiotic originally defined?
As a naturally occurring substance produced by one microorganism that inhibited the growth of, or killed, other microorganisms.
Why are medicines administered to vulnerable areas of the body, such as the eyes, manufactured as sterile products?
To avoid contamination with potentially pathogenic microorganisms, which can be a safety hazard.
What will happen to the use of the oral polio vaccine after global eradication is achieved?
The use of the oral polio vaccine will cease.
What was an antibiotic considered to be in its original definition?
A natural product, a microbial metabolite.
How do microorganisms cause product spoilage?
By chemically decomposing the active ingredient or the excipients in medicines.
How has the definition of antibiotics changed more recently?
The term now encompasses certain synthetic agents that are used systemically to treat infection.
What was the first therapeutic product of DNA technology to be licensed for human use?
Insulin.
How can microorganisms in pharmacy contribute to a risk of infection?
They may contaminate non-sterile and sterile medicines.
Which oncogenic viruses are associated with liver cancer?
Hepatitis B and Hepatitis C.
Name some therapeutic products developed using DNA technology.
Human growth hormone, interferon, erythropoietin, blood clotting factors.
What type of immunity does the formalin-inactivated (Salk) polio vaccine induce?
It induces humoral antibodies but does not induce local intestinal immunity.
What deterioration risk do microorganisms pose to pharmaceutical products?
They may contaminate non-sterile and sterile medicines, leading to product deterioration.
What are some benefits of microorganisms in pharmacy?
Manufacture of antibiotics, steroids, therapeutic enzymes, polysaccharides products of recombinant DNA technology.
Which oncogenic viruses are linked to blood cancers?
HTLV-1 and EBV.
What is the Hepatitis B vaccine made of using DNA technology?
Genetically engineered surface antigens.
Why is the virus still able to multiply in the gut when using the Salk polio vaccine?
Because it does not induce local intestinal immunity.
How are microorganisms used in the production of vaccines?
Microorganisms are cultivated and manipulated to produce vaccines that stimulate immune responses against specific pathogens.
What types of health issues can microorganisms cause in pharmacy settings?
Microorganisms can cause infectious and other diseases.
Which oncogenic viruses are associated with cervical cancer?
HPV 16 and HPV 18.
How is the live attenuated (Sabin) polio vaccine administered?
It is delivered orally.
What kind of reactions can occur when microorganisms are introduced into the body without causing an infection?
They can cause pyrogenic reactions (fever).
Which oncogenic virus is associated with sarcoma?
HHV8.
In what way are microorganisms used as assay organisms?
To determine antibiotic, vitamin, and amino acid concentrations.
What subjects must pharmaceutical microbiology encompass?
Sterilization and preservation against microbial spoilage.
What types of antibodies does the Sabin polio vaccine produce?
It produces IgM, IgG antibodies in the blood, and secretory IgA antibodies in the intestine.
How do microorganisms in pharmacy contribute to antibiotic resistance?
They provide a reservoir of antibiotic resistance genes.
How are microorganisms used to detect mutagenic or carcinogenic activity?
By using assays that measure the effects of substances on microbial DNA and cellular processes.
Why must a pharmacist be knowledgeable about pharmaceutical microbiology?
To ensure the safe, hygienic manufacture and use of medicines.
What type of immunity does the Sabin polio vaccine enable?
Mucosal immunity.
What role do microorganisms play in recombinant DNA technology?
Microorganisms are used to produce polysaccharides and other therapeutic products through genetic manipulation.
What is one of the primary responsibilities of a pharmaceutical microbiologist?
To identify the organisms present.
What environmental knowledge must a pharmacist have regarding microorganisms?
They must know where microorganisms arise in the environment.
What does sterility mean?
The freedom from the presence of viable microorganisms.
What is the scientific name of the Guinea worm?
Dracunculus medinensis
How does the Sabin polio vaccine immunize the host?
It infects, multiplies, and immunizes the host against virulent strains.
Which infectious agent is suspected to be associated with Atherosclerosis?
Chlamydia pneumoniae
Why are pharmaceutical microbiologists tasked with detecting certain organisms?
To detect those that are prohibited from particular product categories.
What are the two key areas of concern mentioned in regard to microbial contamination in pharmaceutical microbiology?
The sources of microbial contamination and the factors that predispose to, or prevent, product spoilage.
Are products taken by mouth or placed on the skin sterile?
No, they are non-sterile and may contain some microorganisms within limits on type and concentration.
What must a modern medicine be shown to be in order to receive a manufacturing license?
Effective, safe, and of good quality.
How does one become infected with Guinea worm?
By drinking water contaminated with infected copepods
What type of disease is a prion disease?
Transmissible spongiform encephalopathy.
What infectious agents are suspected to be associated with Schizophrenia?
Toxoplasma gondii and HSV Type 2
What role does a pharmaceutical microbiologist play in relation to microbial contaminants?
To enumerate microbial contaminants in the manufacturing environment, raw materials, and finished product.
What is the criterion of quality for a sterile product?
There should be no detectable microorganisms whatsoever.
Which types of products must be sterile?
All injections and ophthalmic products.
What happens when microorganisms are exposed to antimicrobial drugs?
They change and develop antimicrobial resistance.
Who is responsible for assessing the efficacy of the active ingredient in a modern medicine?
Pharmacologists.
What is one method of treating Guinea worm disease?
Slow removal of the worm around a stick
What is the cause of prion diseases?
Acquisition of misfolded prion proteins that can cause misfolding and aggregation of normal cellular prion protein expressed in brain tissue.
Which infectious agents are suspected to be associated with Type I Diabetes Mellitus?
Enteroviruses
Why must pharmaceutical microbiologists be familiar with antimicrobial preservatives?
To minimize the risk of microbial growth and spoilage during storage and use by the patient.
What should injections be tested for to ensure quality?
Injections should be subject to a test for pyrogens.
What does it mean for a product to be sterile?
It contains no living organisms.
Which types of microorganisms can develop antimicrobial resistance?
Bacteria, fungi, viruses, and parasites.
Where are normal cellular prion proteins expressed?
In brain tissue.
Who is responsible for assessing the safety of the active ingredient in a modern medicine?
Toxicologists.
What is another method of treating Guinea worm disease if slow removal is not possible?
Surgical removal
What is the cause of sporadic Creutzfeldt-Jakob Disease (CJD)?
Spontaneous transformation of normal prion protein into abnormal prions.
What is a pyrogen?
Any substance which causes fever following injection.
What are some types of antimicrobial drugs?
Antibiotics, antifungals, antivirals, antimalarials, and antihelmintics.
Are products for other anatomical sites such as the nose, ear, vagina, and bladder always sterile?
They are often sterile.
Who takes lead responsibility for ensuring that the components of a medicine are present in the correct physical form and concentration?
Analytical chemists and pharmacists.
What causes familial forms of Creutzfeldt-Jakob Disease (CJD)?
Inheritance of mutations in the PrP gene.
What is the preferred method for sterile medicine manufacturing?
Making the product, packing it in its final container, and sterilizing it by heat, radiation, or other means (terminal sterilization).
What is the origin of the vast majority of pyrogens?
The vast majority of pyrogens are of bacterial origin.
What are microorganisms that develop antimicrobial resistance sometimes called?
Superbugs.
Besides physicochemical properties, what other factor has the potential to influence the efficacy and safety of a medicine?
Microorganisms.
What is iatrogenic Creutzfeldt-Jakob Disease (CJD) and how is it transmitted?
It is transmitted accidentally by contaminated growth hormone preparations from human cadaver pituitary glands, by corneal transplant, by contaminated surgical instruments, and by cadaveric human dura mater grafts used for surgical repair of head injury.
How resistant are prion diseases to standard means of inactivation?
Unusually resistant to standard means of inactivation.
What does the triple therapy for Helicobacter pylori infection consist of?
Triple therapy consists of metronidazole, either bismuth subsalicylate or bismuth subcitrate, plus either amoxicillin or tetracycline for 14 days.
What is terminal sterilization?
The process of making the product, packing it in its final container, and then sterilizing it by heat, radiation, or other means.
Why is the detection, assay, and removal of bacterial pyrogens (endotoxins) considered within the realm of microbiology?
Because the vast majority of pyrogens are of bacterial origin.
What is likely to happen if microorganisms develop resistance to antibiotics?
It will substantially restrict the value of antibiotics in the control of certain infections.
How long should the triple therapy for Helicobacter pylori be administered?
For 14 days.
What is the alternative method to terminal sterilization in sterile medicine manufacturing?
Manufacturing the product from sterile ingredients under conditions that do not permit the entry of contaminating organisms (aseptic manufacture).
What agents are prion diseases resistant to?
Formaldehyde (3.7%), urea (8 M), dry heat, boiling, ethanol (50%), proteases, deoxycholate (5%), and ionizing radiation.
What shape and gram classification does Helicobacter pylori have?
Helicobacter pylori is a spiral-shaped, gram-negative rod.
What does antimicrobial resistance (AMR) threaten?
The effective prevention and treatment of infections caused by bacteria, parasites, viruses, and fungi.
What ability allows bacteria to colonize new niches?
Adaptation to a changing environment.
What is the role of acid-suppressing agents in the treatment of Helicobacter pylori?
An acid-suppressing agent given for 4–6 weeks enhances ulcer healing.
When is aseptic manufacture usually selected?
When the ingredients or physical form of the product render it heat- or radiation-sensitive.
What agents are prion diseases sensitive to?
Phenol (90%), household bleach, ether, NaOH (2 N), strong detergents (10% sodium dodecyl sulfate), and autoclaving (1 hour, 121 °C).
What type of gastritis is Helicobacter pylori associated with?
Helicobacter pylori is associated with antral gastritis.
What is required to combat AMR?
Action across all government sectors and society.
What do bacteria produce to attach to and grow as biofilms on surfaces of medical devices?
Substances or structures.
How do PPIs contribute to the treatment of Helicobacter pylori?
PPIs directly inhibit H. pylori and appear to be potent urease inhibitors.
Why might terminal sterilization not be suitable for all products?
Because some products are heat- or radiation-sensitive.
Which substance is highly effective in decontaminating medical supplies and instruments from prions?
Guanidine thiocyanate.
Which ulcer disease is linked to Helicobacter pylori?
Helicobacter pylori is linked to duodenal (peptic) ulcer disease.
How do bacteria combat the immune system while growing as biofilms on medical devices?
By producing substances or structures that help them attach and grow.
How does AMR affect the success of major surgery and cancer chemotherapy?
Without effective antibiotics, the success of major surgery and cancer chemotherapy would be compromised.
What is the preferred initial therapy for Helicobacter pylori?
The preferred initial therapy is a PPI + amoxicillin + clarithromycin or a quadruple regimen of a PPI + metronidazole + tetracycline + bismuth.
What types of ulcers is Helicobacter pylori associated with?
Helicobacter pylori is associated with gastric ulcers.
Why is the health care cost higher for patients with resistant infections?
Due to longer duration of illness, additional tests, and use of more expensive drugs.
What is the average additional hospital stay caused by hospital-acquired infections?
An extra 14 days.
Which type of cancer is associated with Helicobacter pylori?
Helicobacter pylori is associated with gastric adenocarcinoma.
What is the increase in the chance of dying due to a hospital-acquired infection?
10% increase.
Which diseases are starting to be complicated by drug resistance?
HIV and malaria.
What type of infections are caused by Klebsiella pneumoniae and what is the treatment?
Hospital-acquired infections such as pneumonia, bloodstream infections, and infections in newborns and intensive-care unit patients; treated with carbapenems.
What type of lymphoma is linked to Helicobacter pylori?
Helicobacter pylori is linked to gastric mucosa-associated lymphoid tissue (MALT) lymphomas.
What is the common infection caused by E. coli and what is the recommended treatment?
Urinary tract infections; treated with fluoroquinolones.
What is one economic impact of hospital-acquired infections?
An additional healthcare cost per patient.
Why is AMR a serious threat to global public health?
Because it increasingly complicates the treatment of infections and requires action across all sectors of society.
Which antibiotic is used to treat infections caused by N. gonorrhoeae?
Third generation cephalosporins.
List the antibiotics that MRSA is resistant to.
Methicillin, oxacillin, amoxicillin, penicillin.
What are the treatment options for infections caused by Enterobacteriaceae?
Carbapenems, and if resistant, colistins.
What is MDR-TB and XDR-TB, and which organism causes these conditions?
MDR-TB (Multi-Drug Resistant Tuberculosis) and XDR-TB (Extensively Drug-Resistant Tuberculosis) are caused by M. tuberculosis.
What is the main treatment for malaria caused by P. falciparum?
Artemisinin-based combination therapies.
Which therapy is used to treat HIV?
ART (Antiretroviral Therapy).
What are the treatments for Influenza virus?
Amantadine and rimantadine.
