What happens during the fetch cycle?
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The opcode of the next instruction is loaded into the IR and the address portion is loaded into the MAR.
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What happens during the fetch cycle?
The opcode of the next instruction is loaded into the IR and the address portion is loaded into the MAR.
In what year was the concept of LSI introduced?
What controls traffic between the L3 cache and the cores?
L3 control logic.
In which decade is the glimpse of microprocessors discussed?
The 1980s.
What is a key aspect of the evolution of Intel microprocessors?
The progression in processing power and efficiency over the years.
Where was ARM architecture designed?
By ARM Holdings in Cambridge, England.
What are the characteristics of ARM chips?
They are high-speed processors known for their small die size and low power requirements.
How do changes in technology affect computer architecture?
They result in the introduction of more powerful and complex architectures.
What components can be found in the slots of a motherboard?
Memory chips, I/O controller chips, and other key computer components.
What are the main components of a computer?
Gates, memory cells, and interconnections among these elements.
What are the two general approaches to developing an embedded operating system (OS)?
What characterizes the second generation of computers?
The use of transistors.
What type of sockets are used for connection to disk memory?
Serial ATA (SATA) sockets.
What capabilities are required to access a cloud?
Specialized services over the Internet, linking enterprise data centers to a cloud, and using firewalls.
How many instructions did the IAS computer have?
21 instructions.
What is the focus of Topic 1 in ITS 62704?
Typical Microcontroller Chip Elements.
What decade is associated with the evolution of Intel microprocessors?
The 1980s.
What is the focus of Topic 1 in ITS 62704?
Later Generations of Intel Microprocessors.
What is an alternative discussed in the context of Cloud Computing?
Information Technology Architecture.
What architecture is the microcontroller chip based on?
Cortex - M3 ARM Architecture.
What type of products are discussed in the context of ARM?
ARM Products.
What are the two main concerns of a designer at each level of computer organization?
Structure and Function.
What are the two main processor families discussed?
Intel x86 and ARM architectures.
What does VLSI stand for?
Very Large Scale Integration.
What defines Application Processors?
Their ability to execute complex operating systems and being general-purpose in nature.
What does computer architecture refer to?
Attributes of a system visible to a programmer that impact the logical execution of a program.
What is the bottom-up approach in system description?
Starting at the bottom and building up to a complete description.
What is the focus of Topic 1 in ITS 62704?
Later Generations of Computer Organization & Architecture.
What is a characteristic of computer families regarding their instruction sets?
They have similar or identical instruction sets.
What technology is associated with the term LSI?
Large Scale Integration.
Where did the design of the IAS computer begin?
At the Princeton Institute for Advanced Studies (IAS).
How many storage locations does the IAS memory consist of?
4,096 storage locations.
What is a key feature of the second generation of computers?
The introduction of transistors.
What is the size of each storage location in the IAS memory?
40 binary digits (bits).
What is the focus of Topic 1 in ITS 62704?
Computer Organization & Architecture.
What is the main printed circuit board in a computer called?
Motherboard or system board.
What does the course ITS 62704 cover regarding microprocessors?
A glimpse of microprocessors in the 1990s.
How does NIST define cloud computing?
As a model for enabling ubiquitous, convenient, on-demand network access to a shared pool of configurable computing resources.
What does the motherboard contain for the processor chip?
A slot or socket, typically for a multicore processor.
Is there a requirement for generation-to-generation compatibility in smaller machines?
There is less of a requirement for generation-to-generation compatibility.
What does IAS stand for in the context of computer organization?
IAS stands for Instructional Automatic Sequence.
Why is the growth in transistor count significant?
It impacts the performance and capabilities of integrated circuits.
What was the primary technology used in the first generation of computers?
Vacuum tubes.
What was the primary technology used in the first generation of computers?
Vacuum Tubes.
What are the two sub-cycles of the instruction cycle?
Fetch cycle and execute cycle.
What is the function of L3 cache in a multicore processor?
It occupies 2 distinct portions of the chip surface, accessible by all cores.
What components are involved in the internal bus of a CPU?
Registers, ALU, and Control Unit.
In what type of systems is ARM architecture commonly used?
Embedded systems.
What is another characteristic of new computer generations?
Larger memory capacity.
What is the primary focus of Tutorial 1?
Introduction to Computer.
What technology is highlighted in the context of later generations?
Microprocessors.
What decade is highlighted for microprocessors in the course?
The 1990s.
What is a printed circuit board (PCB)?
A rigid, flat board that holds and interconnects chips and other electronic components.
What is the relationship between architecture and organization in microcomputers?
The relationship is very close, with changes in technology influencing both.
How does cache memory improve performance?
By storing data from main memory that is likely to be used in the near future.
What is the relationship between cache levels and performance?
Using multiple levels of cache (L1, L2, L3, etc.) can lead to greater performance improvements.
What is a key characteristic of contemporary computers?
They contain millions of elementary electronic components.
What type of sockets are used for connecting peripheral devices?
USB sockets.
What does CISC stand for?
Complex Instruction Set Computers.
What does 'Function' refer to in computer organization?
The operation of each individual component as part of the structure.
What interfaces are used for DDR main memory chips?
Interfaces for DDR (double data rate) main memory chips.
When were fully transistorized computers commercially available?
In the late 1950s.
What characterizes Dedicated Processors?
They are dedicated to one or a small number of specific tasks required by the host device.
What is the purpose of data storage in computing?
To temporarily store data for subsequent retrieval and update.
What characterizes the third generation of computers?
The use of integrated circuits.
What is one function of the system software introduced in the second generation?
To load programs.
What does the x86 architecture incorporate from mainframes and supercomputers?
Sophisticated design principles.
What improvements did the Intel 8080 have over its predecessors?
It was faster, had a richer instruction set, and had large addressing capability.
What is happening to the number of I/O ports in modern computers?
Increasing number of I/O ports.
What is a discrete component in the context of computer organization?
A single, self-contained transistor manufactured separately and packaged in its own container.
What is the focus of Topic 1 in ITS 62704?
Cloud Computing.
What is the focus of Topic 1 in ITS 62704?
Later Generations of Computer Organization & Architecture.
How many layers do typical PCBs have?
Typically 2 to 10 layers.
What does the course ITS 62704 cover?
Computer Organization & Architecture.
What does the course ITS 62704 cover regarding processors?
The evolution of Intel microprocessors.
How many computer systems are produced each year that are embedded within larger devices?
Billions.
What does 'Structure' refer to in computer organization?
The way in which the components are interrelated.
What are gates and memory cells constructed from?
Simple digital electronic components.
What is the primary purpose of cache memory in contemporary computers?
To speed up memory access.
What semiconductor material is commonly used to fabricate components?
Silicon.
What is the main component of the first generation of computers?
Vacuum Tubes.
What are the main components of a CPU?
Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU), control unit, and registers.
What is not shown in the description of multicore computer structure?
The logic required to control operations between the cores and the cache, and between the external circuitry on the motherboard.
What is a core in the context of a processor?
An individual processing unit on a processor chip.
What is notable about the ARM architecture?
It is one of the most powerful and best-designed RISC-based systems on the market.
What controls the operations in the IAS?
Electronic circuitry.
When was the IAS computer completed?
In 1952.
What is an Integrated Circuit?
A set of electronic circuits on a small flat piece of semiconductor material.
What was the world's first general-purpose microprocessor?
Intel 8080.
What was unique about the IBM System/360 in terms of computer families?
It was the industry’s first planned family of computers.
What is a characteristic of deeply embedded systems?
They have a processor whose behavior is difficult to observe by both the programmer and the user.
What were the drawbacks of using discrete components?
The manufacturing process was expensive and cumbersome.
What does ARM architecture refer to?
A processor architecture that has evolved from RISC design principles and is used in embedded systems.
What does the course ITS 62704 cover?
Computer Organization & Architecture.
What is cache memory?
A smaller and faster memory layer used to speed up memory access between the processor and main memory.
What are the benefits of cloud computing?
Economies of scale, professional network management, and professional security management.
What do individuals or companies pay for in cloud computing?
For the storage capacity and services they use.
What does cloud networking refer to?
The networks and network management functionality necessary for enabling cloud computing.
What is the purpose of registers in a CPU?
They provide storage internal to the CPU.
How many transistors can modern chip components contain?
From a few thousand up to hundreds of millions.
What does ULSI stand for?
Ultra Large Scale Integration.
What trend has been observed in the density of elements on processor chips?
The density of elements on processor chips has continued to rise.
What are the fundamental methods or types of data processing?
Data Processing, Data Storage, Data Movement, and Control.
What is the significance of the lowest level in a hierarchical system?
It consists of elementary subsystems.
What does the Instruction Logic in a CPU do?
It fetches instructions and decodes each instruction to determine the operation and memory locations of operands.
How does cloud storage benefit small businesses and individual users?
It allows them to take advantage of scalable data storage and a variety of database applications.
Why can Dedicated Processors be engineered to reduce size and cost?
Because they are dedicated to specific task(s).
What is the function of the Arithmetic and Logic Unit (ALU)?
It performs the operation specified by an instruction.
What role does the control unit play in an IAS computer?
It interprets instructions in memory and causes them to be executed.
What are examples of architectural attributes?
The instruction set, number of bits used to represent data types, I/O mechanisms, and memory addressing techniques.
What are the basic functions that elements of a digital computer must perform?
Data storage, movement, processing, and control functions.
What is the function of Main Memory in a computer?
It stores data.
What decade is associated with the evolution of Intel microprocessors?
1990s.
What is the focus of Topic 1 in the ITS 62704 course?
Computer Organization & Architecture.
What is the focus of Topic 1 in ITS 62704?
Later Generations of Computer Organization & Architecture.
What is a key aspect of the evolution discussed in the course?
Recent Processors.
How widely used is ARM architecture?
It is probably the most widely used embedded processor architecture in the world.
What type of microprocessors does ARM architecture include?
A family of RISC-based microprocessors and microcontrollers.
What is a key characteristic of transistors compared to vacuum tubes?
Transistors are smaller, cheaper, and generate less heat.
Which level of cache is closest to the core?
Level 1 (L1) cache.
What is essential for describing complex systems like computers?
Recognizing the hierarchical nature of the system.
What can arise from embedded systems being tightly coupled to their environment?
Real-time constraints.
What is the main function of the Central Processing Unit (CPU)?
To fetch and execute instructions.
When was the IBM System/360 announced?
In 1964.
What is often used interchangeably with computer architecture?
Instruction set architecture (ISA).
What is the role of the Intel 3420 chipset?
It is the I/O controller for direct memory access operations between peripheral devices and main memory.
What is the relationship among wafer, chip, and gate?
Transistors can be connected within chips that are fabricated from silicon wafers, forming gates.
What is the function of the Arithmetic and Logic Unit (ALU) in an IAS computer?
It operates on binary data.
How does a core compare to a CPU in a single-CPU system?
A core may be equivalent in functionality to a CPU.
What primarily drives the Internet of Things?
Deeply embedded devices.
What is the meaning of ULSI?
Ultra Large Scale Integration.
Who is Gordon Moore?
Co-founder of Intel who observed Moore's Law.
What technology characterized the first generation of computers?
Vacuum Tubes.
What are examples of organizational attributes?
Hardware details transparent to the programmer, such as control signals and interfaces between the computer and peripherals.
How does the multiplexor improve the operation of the CPU and memory?
It schedules access to memory from the CPU and data channels, allowing them to act independently.
What significant invention occurred in 1958 related to computer technology?
The invention of the integrated circuit.
Which two computers were the most important members of the third generation?
IBM System/360 and DEC PDP-8.
What are smaller boards that plug into the motherboard called?
Expansion boards.
What decade is associated with the evolution of Intel microprocessors?
1970s.
What significant development in computing occurred in the 1970s?
The emergence of microprocessors.
What type of slots are available on the motherboard for high-end display adapters?
PCI-Express slots.
What does the Arithmetic and Logic Unit (ALU) do?
It performs the computer’s data processing functions.
What is the purpose of expansion slots in desktop computers?
To enable the inclusion of more components on expansion boards.
What is the primary operation performed by the IAS?
It repetitively performs an instruction cycle.
What is CPU interconnection?
It is a mechanism that provides for communications among the control unit, ALU, and registers.
What is the alternative approach to processor design compared to CISC?
Reduced Instruction Set Computer (RISC).
How does the growth in transistor count affect computing power?
It generally leads to increased computing power and efficiency.
How does the CPU interact with the data channel in the second generation?
The CPU sends a control signal to the data channel to initiate an I/O transfer.
What was a significant characteristic of the IBM System/360 product line?
It was incompatible with older IBM machines.
What does instruction set architecture (ISA) define?
Instruction formats, instruction opcodes, registers, instruction and data memory, and the effect of executed instructions on registers and memory.
What impact did the IBM System/360 have on IBM's market position?
It cemented IBM as the overwhelmingly dominant computer vendor.
What does VLSI stand for?
Very Large Scale Integration.
What is a key component of an embedded system?
Processor.
What is a processor?
A physical piece of silicon containing one or more cores.
What is the PDP-8?
A computer from Digital Equipment Corporation (DEC) that was small enough to be placed on a lab bench.
What type of machine was the Intel 8080?
An 8-bit machine with an 8-bit data path to memory.
What is the focus of Topic 1 in ITS 62704?
Later Generations of Computer Organization & Architecture.
What is the primary focus of Topic 1 in ITS 62704?
Motherboard with 2 Intel Quad-Core Xeon Processors.
What is the focus of Topic 1 in ITS 62704?
Typical Microcontroller Chip based on Cortex - M3 ARM Architecture.
What type of processors does the motherboard in the ITS 62704 course use?
2 Intel Quad-Core Xeon Processors.
What is the function of the Control Unit in a CPU?
It controls the operation of the CPU and hence the computer.
What is the primary focus of Topic 1 in ITS 62704?
Growth in transistor count on integrated circuits.
What type of systems are commonly found in devices that use electric power?
Embedded computing systems.
What trend is observed in the development of integrated circuits?
An increase in the number of transistors over time.
What is a key difference between the first and second generations of computers?
The use of data channels with independent I/O modules.
What are examples of constraints imposed on embedded systems?
Required speeds of motion and required precision.
What is a significant advantage of using silicon wafers in manufacturing?
Many transistors can be produced at the same time on a single wafer.
What does the main memory in an IAS computer store?
Both data and instructions.
What advancements were introduced with the second generation of computers?
More complex arithmetic and logic units, control units, and high-level programming languages.
What controls the operation of the computer and performs its data processing functions?
The Central Processing Unit (CPU).
What was the first general-purpose microprocessor?
The Intel 8080, developed in 1974.
What does 'microelectronics' refer to?
Small electronics.
What is the purpose of using data paths in the IAS?
To simplify the electronics.
What is the IBM 7094 known for?
It is an example of a second-generation computer.
What is the function of a multiplexor in the IBM 7094 configuration?
It serves as a central termination point for data channels, the CPU, and memory.
What types of information are stored in the IAS memory?
Both data and instructions.
What did Gordon Moore observe in 1965?
The number of transistors that could be put in a single chip was doubling every year.
What is the role of the control unit in the IAS?
It fetches instructions from memory and executes them one at a time.
How is the L1 cache typically organized in many CPUs?
It is often split between instruction and data caches.
What computer is associated with the second generation of computers?
IBM 7094.
What is the focus of Topic 1 in ITS 62704?
Later Generations of Computer Organization & Architecture.
What does the term 'Later Generations' refer to in the context of processors?
The advancements and developments in microprocessor technology following earlier models.
What type of processors are used in the motherboard discussed in Topic 1?
2 Intel Quad-Core Xeon Processors.
What does the course ITS 62704 cover?
Computer Organization & Architecture.
What does the term 'Later Generations' refer to in the context of processors?
The advancements and developments in microprocessor technology following earlier models.
In which decade did microprocessors begin to emerge?
The 1970s.
What technology is highlighted in the 2000s in the course?
Microprocessors.
What interconnects components on a PCB?
Copper pathways that are etched into the board.
What is the focus of Topic 1 in the course ITS 62704?
Computer Organization & Architecture.
What is the primary focus of the topic in ITS 62704?
The use of electronics and software within a product.
What is a chip in the context of computer structure?
A single piece of silicon that contains electronic circuits.
What types of computers are considered multicore computers?
Embedded computers in smartphones and tablets, personal computers, laptops, and workstations.
What is the purpose of the Ethernet controller on the motherboard?
For network connections.
What is an example of interplay between organizational and architectural design?
The reduced instruction set computer (RISC).
What material is a transistor primarily made from?
Silicon.
What is an example of cloud networking functionality?
Provisioning of high-performance and/or high-reliability networking between the provider and subscriber.
What does RISC stand for?
Reduced Instruction Set Computer.
When was the transistor invented?
In 1947 at Bell Labs.
What fundamental design approach was introduced by the IAS computer?
The stored-program concept.
What defines a hierarchical system?
A set of interrelated subsystems, each hierarchical in structure.
Give an example of an Application Processor.
A smartphone.
What is a key characteristic of each new generation of computers?
Greater processing performance.
What is cloud storage?
A subset of cloud computing that consists of database storage and applications hosted remotely on cloud servers.
What was the significance of the Intel 4004 developed in 1971?
It was the first chip to contain all components of a CPU on a single chip, marking the birth of the microprocessor.
What is the top-down approach in system description?
Beginning with a top view and decomposing the system into its subparts.
What is the purpose of data transfer instructions in the IAS computer?
To move data between memory and ALU registers or between 2 ALU registers.
Who first published the idea of the stored-program concept and when?
John von Neumann in 1945.
What technology characterized the first generation of computers?
Vacuum Tubes.
How does behavior at each level of a hierarchical system depend on lower levels?
It depends on a simplified, abstracted characterization of the system at the next lower level.
What is a third characteristic of new computer generations?
Smaller size than the previous one.
Why is understanding the hierarchical structure important?
It is important for both system design and description.
What does a conditional branch instruction allow?
It allows branching based on a condition, enabling decision points.
What is the IAS computer considered a prototype of?
All subsequent general-purpose computers.
What are the four generations of deployment in IoT?
Information technology (IT), operational technology (OT), personal technology, and sensor/actuator technology.
What is the function of the FXU in the IBM zEnterprise EC12 core?
Executes fixed-point arithmetic operations.
What types of caches are contained within a CPU core?
L1 instruction cache (I-cache) and L1 data cache.
What provides data storage in integrated circuits?
Memory cells.
What is shared by all 6 processors in the IBM chip?
L3 cache.
What is the purpose of a diagnostic port in an embedded system?
For troubleshooting and diagnostics.
What is the role of the DFU in the IBM zEnterprise EC12 core?
Handles both fixed-point and floating-point operations on numbers stored as decimal digits.
What additional features does the Cortex-M4 provide compared to the Cortex-M3?
Additional instructions to support ARM Architecture.
What is the role of the Instruction Decode Unit (IDU)?
Responsible for parsing and decoding all z/Architecture operation codes.
What significant price change occurred in 1974 regarding semiconductor memory?
The price per bit of semiconductor memory dropped below the price per bit of core memory.
What is the purpose of the COP in the IBM zEnterprise EC12 core?
Responsible for data compression and encryption functions for each core.
What does A/D conversion stand for?
Analog to Digital Conversion.
What capability do many deeply embedded systems have?
Wireless capability.
What information does the Program Counter (PC) hold?
The address of the next instruction pair to be fetched from memory.
Are the computers in a big phased-array radar considered embedded?
Yes, because they are dedicated to the specific task of radar signal processing.
What does the READ control signal do in a memory cell?
Places the bit that is in the cell on its output lead.
What trend has been observed in memory costs since 1970?
A continuing and rapid decline in memory cost.
Where can the instruction be obtained from during the fetch cycle?
From the IBR or by loading a word into the MBR and then down to the IBR, IR, and MAR.
What common feature do computer families share in terms of operating systems?
They have similar or identical operating systems.
What is the process called when data is received from or delivered to a device connected to the computer?
Input-output (I/O).
What trend is observed in the speed of computers over time?
Increasing speed.
What are devices that serve as sources or destinations of data called?
Peripherals.
What is an organizational issue related to the multiply instruction?
How that instruction will be implemented, either by a special multiply unit or by reusing the add unit.
What are the four basic functions of integrated circuits in the third generation of computers?
Data storage, data processing, data movement, and control.
What is a multicore processor?
A processor that contains multiple cores.
What was the cost of the PDP-8?
$16,000.
What does the BFU handle in the IBM zEnterprise EC12 core?
All binary and hexadecimal floating-point operations, and fixed-point multiplication operations.
What applications is the Cortex-M3 designed for?
16- and 32-bit applications, emphasizing performance and energy efficiency.
What technology did the Pentium II incorporate?
Intel MMX technology, designed for efficient processing of video, audio, and graphics data.
What is one consequence of Moore's Law regarding computer logic and memory circuitry?
The cost has fallen at a dramatic rate.
How is data movement achieved in integrated circuits?
Through paths among components to move data from memory to memory and through gates.
How can a particular architecture evolve over time?
It may span many years and encompass different computer models, with its organization changing with technology.
What role do peripheral devices play in the IBM 7094 configuration?
They are connected to the main computer system to enhance its functionality.
What is an example of a long-lasting computer architecture?
IBM System/370 architecture, which has survived from 1970 to today.
What was significant about the Core architecture?
It was the first Intel x86 micro-core.
What type of connectivity do operational technology devices primarily use?
Wired connectivity.
What was the later term used for the PDP-8's bus structure?
Point-to-point interconnect.
What was the first 8-bit microprocessor developed by Intel?
The Intel 8008, developed in 1972.
What term refers to the expanding interconnection of smart devices?
The Internet of Things (IoT).
What does computer organization refer to?
The operational units and their interconnections that realize the architectural specifications.
What is a key architectural design issue in computer architecture?
Whether a computer will have a multiply instruction.
How many transistors does the IBM chip have?
2.75 billion transistors.
What is the role of Load/Store Logic in a CPU?
It manages the transfer of data to and from main memory via cache.
What type of operations are performed by the arithmetic instructions in the IAS computer?
Arithmetic operations.
How many cores does the IBM chip contain?
6 cores.
How has memory size changed in computers historically?
Increasing memory size.
What is the function of the Instruction Sequence Unit (ISU) in the IBM zEnterprise EC12 core?
Determines the sequence in which instructions are executed in a superscalar architecture.
What change occurred in the pace of transistor doubling in the 1970s?
It slowed to doubling every 18 months.
What is the role of I/O in a computer system?
Moves data between the computer and its external environment.
What year marks the introduction of ULSI technology?
What provides communication among the CPU, main memory, and I/O?
System interconnection, often via a system bus.
What is the function of the memory controller (MC) in the chip?
Controls access to memory external to the chip.
Does the presence of an I/O driver imply that the computer executing the driver is embedded?
No, the presence of an I/O driver does not necessarily mean the computer is an embedded system; it could be part of a general-purpose computer.
What does the GX I/O bus control?
The interface.
What is the purpose of the Instruction Buffer Register (IBR)?
It temporarily holds the right-hand instruction from a word in memory.
What was the capacity of the first relatively capacious semiconductor memory produced by Fairchild in 1970?
It could hold 256 bits of memory.
How are deeply embedded systems often configured?
In networked configurations, such as networks of sensors deployed over a large area.
What is a deeply embedded system?
A deeply embedded system is a computer system that is integrated into a larger device and performs dedicated functions with real-time constraints.
What was the size of the first semiconductor memory chip produced by Fairchild?
About the size of a single core.
Where are I/O instructions stored in the second generation computers?
In main memory, to be executed by a special-purpose processor in the data channel.
What is the function of an unconditional branch instruction?
To change the sequence of instruction execution from memory, facilitating repetitive operations.
What does the data channel do in the second generation of computers?
Performs its task independently of the CPU.
What is the significance of the architecture of the IBM System/360?
It remains the architecture of IBM’s mainframe computers to this day.
What type of design does the x86 architecture exemplify?
CISC design.
What type of logic is often used in embedded systems?
Custom Logic.
How many registers are used to simplify the electronics in the IAS?
Only 1 register.
What factors may influence the organizational decision for implementing a multiply instruction?
Anticipated frequency of use, relative speed of approaches, cost, and physical size of a special multiply unit.
What does I/O stand for in computer architecture?
Input/Output.
Which personal computer used the Intel 8080?
The Altair.
What is operational technology (OT)?
Machines/appliances with embedded IT built by non-IT companies.
Can deeply embedded systems be programmed after the initial logic is burned into ROM?
No, they are not programmable once the program logic has been burned into ROM.
What is the storage density improvement per generation of semiconductor memory?
Each generation provides 4 times the storage density of the previous generation.
What does the RU do in the IBM zEnterprise EC12 core?
Keeps a copy of the complete state of the system, collects hardware fault signals, and manages hardware recovery actions.
What are actuators used for in an embedded system?
To perform actions based on control signals.
What does the Load-Store Unit (LSU) manage?
Data traffic between the L2 data cache and the functional execution units, and handles all types of operand accesses.
What is the clock frequency range for real-time applications in ARM processors?
200MHz to 800MHz.
What additional logic is present between the cores and the L3 cache?
Storage control (SC) logic.
What are the key features of the Core 2 architecture?
Extends to 64 bits, includes Core 2 Quad with four cores on a single chip, and supports up to 10 cores in recent offerings.
What does the WRITE control signal do in a memory cell?
Stores the bit that is on its input lead.
What are the four versions of the Cortex-M series?
Cortex-M0, Cortex-M0+, Cortex-M3, and Cortex-M4, each designed for different performance and power efficiency levels.
What is the primary design focus of the Cortex-M0?
Low cost, ultra low power, and simplicity for 8- and 16-bit applications.
What does the Input-Output (I/O) equipment do in an IAS computer?
It is operated by the control unit.
What impact did increasing the number of elements on chips have on computer construction?
Fewer chips were needed to construct a single computer processor.
How does the Cortex-M0+ differ from the Cortex-M0?
The Cortex-M0+ is an enhanced version that is more energy efficient.
What is the difference between a central processing unit (CPU) and a core?
The CPU is the main processing unit of a computer, while a core is a single processing unit within a CPU that can execute instructions independently.
What does it mean when all processors reside on a single chip?
It is referred to as a multicore computer structure.
Are programs that understand physics and/or hardware embedded systems?
No, they are not embedded systems because they are typically general-purpose software used for simulations, not dedicated to a specific task.
What is the purpose of a combined L2 cache in a CPU?
It is used for both instruction and data caching.
Is the internal microprocessor controlling a disk drive an example of an embedded system?
Yes, because it is dedicated to controlling the specific function of the disk drive.
What type of memory is associated with semiconductor technology?
Semiconductor Memory.
What is a system bus?
A mechanism consisting of conducting wires to which all other components attach for communication.
What is a key component of microprocessors?
Integration of multiple functions on a single chip.
Is a PDA (Personal Digital Assistant) an embedded system?
Yes, because it is designed for a specific function and operates with dedicated software.
What is a key feature of the PDP-8's architecture?
It is highly flexible, allowing modules to be plugged into the bus for various configurations.
What is the function of the Translation Unit (XU)?
Translates logical addresses from instructions into physical addresses in main memory.
What important addition was made to the Core architecture?
The Advanced Vector Extensions instruction set.
What technique did Intel introduce with the Pentium processor?
Superscalar techniques, allowing multiple instructions to execute in parallel.
What materials were required for the construction of the IAS computer?
Wires, metal plates, glass capsules, and a vacuum.
What is a gate in computer architecture?
A device that implements a simple Boolean or logical function.
How were the models of the IBM System/360 compatible?
They were compatible in the sense that they formed a planned family.
What do many computer manufacturers offer in terms of computer models?
A family of models with the same architecture but different organizational characteristics.
What is responsible for data processing in integrated circuits?
Gates.
What was the significance of the Intel 8086?
It was a more powerful 16-bit machine and the first appearance of the x86 architecture.
What distinguishes the second generation of computers from the first generation?
The use of transistors instead of vacuum tubes.
What feature did the Intel 8086 introduce?
An instruction cache that pre-fetches instructions before execution.
What role do control signals play in integrated circuits?
They activate gates and control data movement and storage.
What was the Intel 8088?
A variant of the 8086 used in IBM's first personal computer.
What type of computer structure is referred to as a Simple Single-Processor Computer?
A basic computer architecture with one CPU.
What is the function of sensors in an embedded system?
To detect physical phenomena and convert them into signals.
How does the speed of semiconductor memory compare to core memory?
Semiconductor memory is much faster than core memory.
What does the internal structure of a single core in the IBM zEnterprise EC12 include?
ISU, IFU, IDU, LSU, and XU.
Is the computer controlling fuel injection in an automobile engine embedded?
Yes, as it is dedicated to managing the fuel injection process.
What is the difference between computer organization and computer architecture?
Computer architecture refers to the design and structure of a computer's system, while computer organization deals with the operational units and their interconnections.
What is the term for moving data over longer distances?
Data communications.
What types of devices are included in Information Technology (IT)?
PCs, servers, routers, firewalls, etc.
What type of controller do deeply embedded systems use?
A microcontroller rather than a microprocessor.
What advantage did the PDP-8 provide to lab technicians?
It was affordable enough for each lab technician to have one.
What are the four main functions of a computer?
Input, processing, output, and storage.
What is an original equipment manufacturer (OEM)?
A manufacturer that purchases a PDP-8 and integrates it into a total system for resale.
What is the function of the Memory Address Register (MAR)?
It specifies the address in memory of the word to be written from or read into the MBR.
What does the Omnibus in the PDP-8 consist of?
96 separate signal paths used to carry control, address, and data signals.
What does the Instruction Register (IR) contain?
The 8-bit opcode instruction being executed.
How can the Omnibus be controlled?
By the CPU.
What is the size of the I-cache in the IBM zEnterprise EC12 core?
64 kB L1 instruction cache.
What occurs when the control signal is OFF for a gate?
The output line is null, similar to a high impedance state.
What was significant about the Intel 80386?
It was Intel's first 32-bit machine and supported multitasking.
What advancements did the Intel 80486 introduce?
Sophisticated cache technology and instruction pipelining, along with a built-in math coprocessor.
What is the role of memory in an embedded system?
To store data and instructions.
How are numbers represented in the IAS memory?
In binary form.
What is a notable trend regarding the cost of computers?
Increasing cost.
What does the Memory Buffer Register (MBR) do?
It contains a word to be stored in memory or sent to the I/O unit, or received from memory or the I/O unit.
How do different models in a computer family vary?
They have different price and performance characteristics.
What additional features were included in the Pentium III?
Additional floating-point instructions and Streaming SIMD Extensions (SSE).
How does Moore's Law affect operating speed?
It shortens the electrical path length, increasing operating speed.
What enhancements did the Pentium 4 include?
Additional floating-point and other enhancements for multimedia.
What impact does Moore's Law have on the size of computers?
Computers become smaller and more convenient to use in various environments.
What is the significance of a multiplexor?
A multiplexor allows multiple input signals to be combined into a single output signal, enabling efficient data routing.
What features do ARM processors include for industrial applications?
Memory protection unit (MPU), cache, and other memory features.
What does Moore's Law imply about inter-chip connections?
Fewer inter-chip connections are needed.
What advancements were made in the Pentium Pro?
Aggressive use of register renaming, branch prediction, data flow analysis, and speculative execution.
When was VLSI technology introduced?
How many generations of semiconductor memory have there been since 1970?
13 generations.
What is the structure of each instruction in the IAS memory?
Each instruction consists of an 8-bit opcode and a 12-bit address.
What does D/A conversion stand for in embedded systems?
Digital to Analog Conversion.
How many bits are used for the opcode in an IAS instruction?
8 bits.
What is a memory cell?
A device that can store 1 bit of data and can be in 1 of 2 stable states at any time.
What is the purpose of the 12-bit address in an IAS instruction?
It designates one of the IAS memory formats.
How do personal technology devices primarily connect?
Exclusively using wireless connectivity.
What reduction is associated with Moore's Law?
Reduction in power and cooling requirements.
What is Moore’s law?
Moore's law states that the number of transistors on a microchip doubles approximately every two years, leading to increased performance and reduced cost.
What is the primary focus of microcontrollers in ARM architecture?
Fast, highly deterministic interrupt management with extremely low power consumption.
What is the significance of the silicon surface area in a multicore computer structure?
It makes up a portion of a single-processor chip.
What role does the control unit play within a computer?
It manages the computer’s resources and orchestrates the performance of its functional parts.
Give an example of a gate and its function.
An AND gate with inputs A and B and output C implements the expression: IF A AND B ARE TRUE THEN C IS TRUE.
What does the Instruction Fetch Unit (IFU) do?
It contains the logic for fetching instructions.
Why are gates named as such?
Because they control data flow.
What are the main structural components of a computer?
Input devices, output devices, memory, and the central processing unit.
What are application processors designed for?
Mobile devices and consumer devices, running at higher clock frequencies and supporting MMU.
What are the main structural components of a core?
ALU (Arithmetic Logic Unit), registers, control unit, and cache.
What was the impact of developments in memory and processor technologies in the 1970s?
They changed the nature of computers in less than a decade.
What is contained within the Load-Store Unit (LSU)?
A 96-kB L1 data cache.
Is the microprocessor controlling a cell phone an embedded system?
Yes, because it is specifically designed to manage the functions of the cell phone.
What is the role of the human interface in an embedded system?
To allow interaction between the user and the system.
What characteristic of the first semiconductor memory made it advantageous?
It was non-destructive.
Is the computer controlling a pacemaker in a person’s chest an embedded computer?
Yes, because it is specifically designed to perform the dedicated task of regulating heartbeats.
What types of devices fall under personal technology?
Smartphones, tablets, and eBook readers.
Do deeply embedded systems interact with users?
No, they have no interaction with a user.
What is sensor/actuator technology?
Single-purpose devices bought by consumers, IT, and OT people.
What is the primary function of deeply embedded systems?
To detect something in the environment, perform basic processing, and act on the results.
What happens when the control signal is ON for a gate?
The gate performs its function on the data inputs and produces a data output.
What memory addressing capability did the Intel 80286 enable?
Addressing up to 16 MB of memory instead of just 1 MB.
What does the I-cache allow the IFU to do?
Pre-fetch instructions before they are needed.
What are the roles of the Accumulator (AC) and Multiplier Quotient (MQ)?
They are employed to hold intermediate results during computations.
Is a traditional flight management system (FMS) built into an airplane cockpit considered embedded?
Yes, as it is dedicated to managing flight operations.
