p.3
Plasma Proteins Characteristics and Functions
What are the transport functions of plasma albumin?
It binds to free fatty acids, bilirubin, steroid hormones, calcium, and copper for transportation in the circulation.
p.3
Plasma Proteins Characteristics and Functions
What does prealbumin do?
<p>Transports thyroxine to some extent.</p>
p.7
Structure of Immunoglobulins
What is responsible for the specific binding of immunoglobulin with antigen?
The acid sequence (with its tertiary structure) of variable regions of light and heavy chains.
p.9
Blood Clotting Cascade
What is the extrinsic pathway in blood clotting?
The initial process in clotting involving factors not present in the blood.
p.11
Anticoagulants and Their Mechanism
How does warfarin act as an oral anticoagulant?
It reduces the synthesis of clotting factors II, VII, IX, and X.
p.1
Plasma Proteins Characteristics and Functions
What is the main difference between plasma and serum?
The presence or absence of fibrinogen.
p.1
Plasma Proteins Characteristics and Functions
How can plasma proteins be separated into three groups?
By using varying concentrations of ammonium sulfate or sodium sulfate in a process known as salting out.
p.12
Anticoagulants and Their Mechanism
What are some examples of anticoagulants that inhibit blood clotting?
Heparin, oxalate, fluoride, EDTA, citrate.
p.8
Immunoglobulins and Their Functions
What do IgE molecules tightly bind with, and what do they cause?
IgE molecules tightly bind with mast cells, which release histamine and cause allergy.
p.14
Immunoglobulins and Their Functions
What are the different types of immunoglobulins and their functions?
Immunoglobulins such as IgG, IgA, IgM, IgE, and IgD have specific roles in immune responses including neutralizing pathogens, activating complement, and mediating allergic reactions.
p.3
Plasma Proteins Characteristics and Functions
What is the buffering function of albumin?
It has the maximum buffering capacity among plasma proteins, although its buffering action in plasma is not significant compared to the bicarbonate buffer system.
p.10
Blood Clotting Cascade
What is the intrinsic pathway of blood coagulation?
A slow pathway involving the participation of a contact system and a series of factors to generate factor Xa, with the activation of Hageman factor (XII) and subsequent activation of factor XI.
p.8
Immunoglobulins and Their Functions
What is the function of IgD?
Not known for certain, but some believe it may function as a B-cell receptor.
p.14
Plasma Proteins Characteristics and Functions
What are the characteristics and major functions of plasma proteins?
Plasma proteins have diverse functions including maintaining osmotic pressure, transporting substances, and contributing to the immune system.
p.14
Structure of Immunoglobulins
What is the structure of different immunoglobulins?
Immunoglobulins have a Y-shaped structure with variable and constant regions, allowing them to bind to specific antigens and activate immune responses.
p.13
Fibrinogen and Fibrin Clot Formation
What is responsible for the dissolution of fibrin clots and what converts its inactive precursor to the active form?
Plasmin; tissue plasminogen activator (TPA) and urokinase.
p.14
Multiple Myeloma and Its Diagnosis
At what temperature are Bence-Jones proteins precipitated when urine is heated?
Bence-Jones proteins are precipitated when urine is heated to 40-60°C.
p.14
Anticoagulants and Their Mechanism
Which anticoagulant binds with Ca2+ and prevents blood clotting?
Heparin binds with Ca2+ and prevents blood clotting.
p.2
Plasma Proteins Characteristics and Functions
What disorder is attributed to a drastic reduction in plasma albumin level?
Kwashiorkor, a disorder of protein-energy malnutrition.
p.9
Blood Clotting Cascade
What is the body's major defense mechanism against blood loss?
Blood clotting or coagulation.
p.12
Plasma Proteins Characteristics and Functions
What is the function of Albumin, the most abundant plasma protein?
Osmotic function, transport of fatty acids and steroid hormones, buffering action.
p.11
Fibrinogen and Fibrin Clot Formation
What converts plasminogen to plasmin?
Tissue plasminogen activator (TPA) and urokinase.
p.12
Multiple Myeloma and Its Diagnosis
What is the characteristic feature of multiple myeloma?
Overproduction of abnormal immunoglobulins, mostly IgG.
p.12
Blood Clotting Cascade
What is the characteristic feature of Von Willebrand’s disease?
Failure of platelets to aggregate due to a defect in the platelet adherence factor.
p.13
Immunoglobulins and Their Functions
What are the functions of immunoglobulins in the body?
To defend the body against foreign substances.
p.5
Acute Phase Proteins and Their Role
What does the response of C-reactive protein (CRP) in serum indicate after surgery?
It indicates the evaluation of the acute phase response.
p.14
Haptoglobin and Its Functions
What compound does Haptoglobin bind and prevent the excretion of?
Haptoglobin binds and prevents the excretion of hemoglobin.
p.4
Plasma Proteins Characteristics and Functions
What diseases are implicated in D1-Antitrypsin deficiency?
Emphysema and D1-AT deficiency liver disease.
p.3
Plasma Proteins Characteristics and Functions
What is the major function of haptoglobins?
It binds with plasma free hemoglobin and prevents its excretion.
p.9
Blood Clotting Cascade
What is hemostasis?
The sequence of physiological responses to stop bleeding.
p.12
Blood Clotting Cascade
What are some examples of inherited disorders associated with blood clotting abnormalities?
Hemophilia, Von Willebrand’s disease.
p.9
Blood Clotting Cascade
What is the final result of the blood clotting process?
Activation of prothrombin to thrombin and conversion of fibrinogen to fibrin clot.
p.12
Blood Clotting Cascade
What is the major defense mechanism against blood loss in the body?
Blood clotting or coagulation.
p.5
Acute Phase Proteins and Their Role
What does the response of C-reactive protein (CRP) in serum indicate after surgery?
It indicates the evaluation of the acute phase response.
p.4
Plasma Proteins Characteristics and Functions
What is the clinical significance of albumin in preventing certain compounds from crossing the blood-brain barrier?
It prevents compounds like albumin-bilirubin complex and albumin-free fatty acid complex from crossing the blood-brain barrier.
p.14
Immunoglobulins and Their Functions
Which immunoglobulins can bind with mast cells and release histamine?
Immunoglobulin E (IgE) can bind with mast cells and release histamine.
p.4
Plasma Proteins Characteristics and Functions
What is the clinical significance of D2-Macroglobulin in nephrotic syndrome?
Its concentration in plasma is elevated in nephrotic syndrome due to the loss of low molecular weight proteins in urine (proteinuria).
p.2
Plasma Proteins Characteristics and Functions
What is the osmotic function of plasma albumin?
It contributes to 75–80% of the total plasma osmotic pressure, maintaining blood volume and body fluid distribution.
p.11
Anticoagulants and Their Mechanism
How does heparin function as an anticoagulant?
It retards blood clotting.
p.6
Structure of Immunoglobulins
What type of molecule is an immunoglobulin?
A Y-shaped tetramer (H2L2).
p.6
Structure of Immunoglobulins
What are the two regions (domains) of an immunoglobulin chain?
Constant and variable regions.
p.13
Acute Phase Proteins and Their Role
What is the major constituent of the D1 globulin fraction and what diseases are associated with its deficiency?
D1-Antitrypsin; emphysema and a specific liver disease.
p.5
Acute Phase Proteins and Their Role
What is the role of C-reactive protein (CRP) in the immune system?
It is involved in the promotion of the immune system through the activation of the complement cascade.
p.13
Multiple Myeloma and Its Diagnosis
What is multiple myeloma and what is observed in the plasma of multiple myeloma patients on electrophoresis?
It is due to the malignancy of a single clone of plasma cells in the bone marrow, causing the overproduction of abnormal IgG. The plasma shows a distinct M-band.
p.14
Plasma Proteins Characteristics and Functions
What is the most commonly employed technique for separation of plasma proteins?
The most commonly employed technique for separation of plasma proteins is electrophoresis.
p.4
Plasma Proteins Characteristics and Functions
What is the function of D1-Antitrypsin?
It is a serine protease inhibitor that combines with trypsin, elastase, and other protease enzymes and inhibits their activity.
p.4
Plasma Proteins Characteristics and Functions
What is the function of Haptoglobin?
It binds with free hemoglobin that spills into the plasma due to hemolysis, forming the haptoglobin-hemoglobin complex.
p.10
Blood Clotting Cascade
What is the role of factor Va and Xa in blood coagulation?
They are required for the extrinsic pathway of blood coagulation and participate in the final common pathway to result in the formation of a fibrin clot.
p.9
Fibrinogen and Fibrin Clot Formation
What is the function of fibrinogen in blood clotting?
It constitutes 2-3% of plasma proteins and undergoes proteolytic cleavage catalyzed by thrombin to form fibrin monomers.
p.9
Fibrinogen and Fibrin Clot Formation
How is clot formation further stabilized?
By covalent cross-linking between glutamine and lysine residues, catalyzed by fibrin stabilizing factor (XIII).
p.5
Plasma Proteins Characteristics and Functions
What is the role of Transferrin in the circulation?
It is a transporter of iron.
p.5
Acute Phase Proteins and Their Role
What is the major component of acute phase proteins?
C-reactive protein (CRP).
p.13
Acute Phase Proteins and Their Role
What are the observed alterations in acute phase proteins and what is used for their evaluation?
Alterations are observed as a result of non-specific response to infection, injury, inflammation, etc. Serum C-reactive protein is used for evaluation.
p.13
Immunoglobulins and Their Functions
What are the five classes of immunoglobulins found in humans and their main responsibilities?
IgG (humoral immunity), IgA (body surface protection), IgM (first line of defense for humoral immunity), IgE (associated with allergic reactions).
p.14
Immunoglobulins and Their Functions
Which immunoglobulin can cross the placenta and transfer the mother’s immunity to the developing fetus?
Immunoglobulin G (IgG) can cross the placenta and transfer the mother’s immunity to the developing fetus.
p.4
Plasma Proteins Characteristics and Functions
What is the effect of D1-Antitrypsin deficiency on emphysema?
It is associated with abnormal distension of the lungs by air, lung infections, and an increase in the activity of macrophages to release elastase that damages lung tissues.
p.3
Plasma Proteins Characteristics and Functions
What are the nutritive functions of albumin?
It serves as a source of amino acids for tissue protein synthesis to a limited extent, particularly in nutritional deprivation of amino acids.
p.7
Structure of Immunoglobulins
Where does papain cleave the immunoglobulin molecule?
At the site between C H 1 and C H 2 regions, referred to as the hinge region.
p.1
Plasma Proteins Characteristics and Functions
What are the functions performed by blood?
Respiration, excretion, acid-base maintenance, water balance, transport of metabolites, hormones and drugs, body defense, and coagulation.
p.9
Blood Clotting Cascade
What is the intrinsic pathway in blood clotting?
A series of reactions participated by the factors present in the blood.
p.7
Immunoglobulins and Their Functions
Where is IgA mostly found in the body?
In body secretions such as saliva, tears, sweat, milk, and the walls of the intestine.
p.7
Immunoglobulins and Their Functions
What is the major function of IgM?
Serving as the first line of defense.
p.13
Plasma Proteins Characteristics and Functions
What is the major constituent of plasma proteins and its concentration range?
Albumin, with a concentration of 3.5 to 5.0 g/dl.
p.14
Plasma Proteins Characteristics and Functions
What is the difference between plasma and serum?
The difference between plasma and serum is the presence or absence of fibrinogen.
p.4
Plasma Proteins Characteristics and Functions
What is the therapeutic use of albumin?
It is useful for the treatment of burns and hemorrhage.
p.14
Plasma Proteins Characteristics and Functions
What functions does plasma albumin perform?
Plasma albumin performs osmotic, transport, and nutritive functions.
p.3
Plasma Proteins Characteristics and Functions
What is the major function of fibrinogen?
It participates in blood coagulation.
p.1
Plasma Proteins Characteristics and Functions
What are the functions performed by albumin?
Osmotic, transport, and nutritive functions.
p.10
Blood Clotting Cascade
What is the extrinsic pathway of blood coagulation?
A rapid pathway occurring in response to tissue injury, involving the conversion of proconvertin (VII) to its active form (VIIa) and the generation of factor Xa.
p.6
Structure of Immunoglobulins
What holds the heavy and light chains together in an immunoglobulin molecule?
Disulfide linkages and non-covalent interactions.
p.5
Haptoglobin and Its Functions
Why can Haptoglobin prevent the loss of free Hb into urine?
Because it binds to free Hb, preventing its passage through the glomeruli of the kidney.
p.12
Haptoglobin and Its Functions
What is the role of Haptoglobin in the plasma?
Prevents the loss of free hemoglobin from the plasma through the kidneys by forming haptoglobin-hemoglobin complex.
p.8
Immunoglobulins and Their Functions
Where are IgD molecules present?
On the surface of B cells.
p.9
Fibrinogen and Fibrin Clot Formation
What is the red color of the clot due to?
The presence of red cells entangled in the fibrin cross-links.
p.5
Acute Phase Proteins and Their Role
What is the acute phase response associated with?
Infection, injury, various inflammatory conditions, and cancer.
p.14
Acute Phase Proteins and Their Role
What is the role of acute phase proteins in health and disease?
Acute phase proteins play a crucial role in the body's response to inflammation and infection, serving as biomarkers for various diseases and conditions.
p.4
Plasma Proteins Characteristics and Functions
MEOWMEWOMEWOMEOWMEOWMEOW
In hypoalbuminemia, plasma osmotic pressure is decreased, leading to the flow of water from plasma to the interstitial compartment, resulting in edema of legs and other body parts.
p.14
Fibrinogen and Fibrin Clot Formation
Which factor is mostly responsible for the lysis of blood clots?
Plasmin is mostly responsible for the lysis of blood clots.
p.7
Structure of Immunoglobulins
What are the two fragments produced by the proteolytic cleavage of immunoglobulin by papain?
Two identical antigen binding fragments (Fab) and one crystallizable fragment (Fc).
p.7
Immunoglobulins and Their Functions
How many classes of immunoglobulins do humans have?
Five classes: IgG, IgA, IgM, IgD, and IgE.
p.10
Anticoagulants and Their Mechanism
What are some substances used as anticoagulants?
Oxalate, fluoride, EDTA, citrate, and heparin.
p.10
Anticoagulants and Their Mechanism
How does heparin function as an anticoagulant?
It combines with antithrombin III, which in turn inhibits the coagulation cascade.
p.10
Blood Clotting Cascade
What is the role of calcium in blood coagulation?
It is essentially required for certain reactions of blood coagulation.
p.12
Immunoglobulins and Their Functions
What is the role of Immunoglobulins in the plasma?
Actively involved in immunity, with IgG and IgM primarily concerned with humoral immunity and IgE associated with allergic reactions.
p.13
Plasma Proteins Characteristics and Functions
What functions does albumin perform?
Osmotic, transport, and nutritive functions.
p.13
Haptoglobin and Its Functions
What is the function of Haptoglobin (Hp) in the plasma?
It binds with free hemoglobin to prevent its loss into urine.
p.5
Acute Phase Proteins and Their Role
What is the significance of high sensitive CRP (hs-CRP) levels in the circulation?
They are useful for predicting the risk of coronary heart disease.
p.13
Blood Clotting Cascade
What is the body's major defense mechanism against blood loss and how is fibrin clot formed?
Blood clotting; factor Xa participates in the final common pathway to activate prothrombin to thrombin, which then converts fibrinogen to fibrin clot.
p.14
Immunoglobulins and Their Functions
Which cells are responsible for the production of immunoglobulins?
B lymphocytes are responsible for the production of immunoglobulins.
p.4
Plasma Proteins Characteristics and Functions
How does smoking affect D1-Antitrypsin?
Smoking causes oxidation of the amino acid methionine at position 358 of D1-Antitrypsin to methionine sulfoxide, which results in its inability to bind and inactivate proteases.
p.11
Blood Clotting Cascade
What are the clotting factors involved in the blood clotting cascade?
Factors II, IX, X, XI, XII, and kallikrein.
p.6
Structure of Immunoglobulins
What are the basic components of an immunoglobulin molecule?
Two identical heavy chains and two identical light chains.
p.12
Hemophilia and Clotting Factor Deficiency
What is the deficiency that causes Hemophilia A?
Antihemophilic factor (VIII).
p.7
Immunoglobulins and Their Functions
What is the major function of IgE?
Humoral sensitivity and histamine release.
p.8
Immunoglobulins and Their Functions
In which individuals are IgE levels elevated?
Individuals with allergies.
p.8
Immunoglobulins and Their Functions
How is antibody diversity achieved?
By the combination of various structural genes and somatic mutations.
p.14
Blood Clotting Cascade
What is the cascade of the blood clotting process?
The blood clotting cascade involves a series of enzymatic reactions leading to the formation of a blood clot to prevent excessive bleeding.
p.8
Multiple Myeloma and Its Diagnosis
How can the presence of Bence Jones proteins in urine be detected?
Through specific tests such as electrophoresis, the heat test, and Bradshaw’s test.
p.4
Plasma Proteins Characteristics and Functions
What is the clinical significance of albuminuria?
It is observed in nephrotic syndrome and certain inflammatory conditions of the urinary tract. Microalbuminuria (30-300 mg/day) is clinically important for predicting the future risk of renal diseases.
p.14
Hemophilia and Clotting Factor Deficiency
What is the deficiency that causes Hemophilia A?
Hemophilia A is due to the deficiency of clotting factor VIII.
p.8
Multiple Myeloma and Its Diagnosis
What are Bence Jones proteins?
Light chains of immunoglobulins that are synthesized in excess.
p.4
Plasma Proteins Characteristics and Functions
What conditions are associated with hypoalbuminemia?
Malnutrition, nephrotic syndrome, and cirrhosis of the liver.
p.14
Acute Phase Proteins and Their Role
What is the major component of acute phase proteins used for the evaluation of acute phase response?
C-reactive protein (CRP) is the major component of acute phase proteins used for the evaluation of acute phase response.
p.14
Immunoglobulins and Their Functions
Which immunoglobulin is involved in body allergic reactions?
Immunoglobulin E (IgE) is involved in body allergic reactions.
p.1
Plasma Proteins Characteristics and Functions
How is nephrotic syndrome detected using electrophoresis?
<p>Diminished albumin and prominent a2-globulin levels</p>
p.1
Plasma Proteins Characteristics and Functions
How are acute infections detected using electrophoresis?
<p>Increased a1 and a2-globulin levels</p>
p.1
Plasma Proteins Characteristics and Functions
How is primary immune deficiency detected using electrophoresis?
<p>Diminished y-globulin band.</p>
p.8
Multiple Myeloma and Its Diagnosis
What is the characteristic pattern of electrophoresis in the plasma of multiple myeloma patients?
<p>A sharp and distinct band (M band) between B- and Y-globulins.</p>
p.13
Plasma Proteins Characteristics and Functions
How is a1 antitrypsin deficiency detected using electrophoresis?
<p>Diminished a1 globulin levels.</p>
