What is the central assumption regarding birth in the learning approach to personality?
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The idea that we are born as a "blank slate," learning behavior from our environment.
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What is the central assumption regarding birth in the learning approach to personality?
The idea that we are born as a "blank slate," learning behavior from our environment.
According to learning theory, is behavior better understood through internal or external causes?
External causes (environmental variables).
In behaviorism, what is responsible for shaping behavior via learning?
Environmental conditions.
Is the learning approach to personality nature-focused or nurture-focused?
It is nurture-focused (behavior is primarily learned from the environment).
According to Watson and Skinner, how should psychology be studied?
Scientific and objective.
What is the primary focus of behaviorism, according to the "Key Perspective" of Watson and Skinner?
Observable behavior.
What are the two primary mechanisms through which learning occurs in behaviorism?
Associations (classical conditioning) and consequences (operant conditioning).
How are behaviors acquired according to the definition of behaviorism?
Conditioning from the environment.
What is the key principle describing the product of behavior in behaviorism?
Stimulus (S) → Response (R) connections.
What analogy is used for the mind in behaviorism to suggest we only need to know what goes in and what comes out?
A "black box."
How is "learning" defined in this context?
A relatively permanent change in behavior occurring as a result of experience.
What are the four basic kinds of learning mentioned in the text?
What is an Unconditioned Stimulus (US)?
A stimulus that naturally and automatically triggers a response without prior learning (e.g., food).
What is an Unconditioned Response (UR)?
The unlearned, natural response to an unconditioned stimulus (e.g., salivation to food).
What is a Neutral Stimulus (NS)?
A stimulus that initially elicits no relevant response (e.g., a bell before conditioning).
What is a Conditioned Stimulus (CS)?
An originally neutral stimulus that, after association with a US, triggers a conditioned response.
What is a Conditioned Response (CR)?
The learned response to a previously neutral stimulus (e.g., salivation to the bell).
In Pavlov's dog experiment, what becomes the Conditioned Stimulus (CS)?
The bell (the previously neutral stimulus).
In Pavlov's dog experiment, what is the Conditioned Response (CR)?
Salivation to the bell.
What is the process of forming a learned connection between a Neutral Stimulus and an Unconditioned Stimulus called?
Acquisition.
Is an unconditioned stimulus considered learned or unlearned?
Unconditioned (Unlearned).
What two basic components are summarized in Pavlov's model?
Stimulus (Trigger) and Response (Behavior).
What was the primary method used in the "Little Albert" study (1920)?
Conditioning a child to fear a white rat by pairing it with a loud, frightening noise.
What type of responses did the "Little Albert" study demonstrate could be learned through classical conditioning?
Emotions (such as fear).
Did John B. Watson believe that heredity or environment was more important in shaping behavior?
Environment (nurture).
What is the core belief of Watson's "environmental determinism"?
Nurture over nature.
How did Watson's S-R Psychology define complex behavior?
A chain of stimulus-response (S-R) connections.
What were the major legacies or impacts of Watson's work?
What is the term for a conditioned response that manifests as an emotional reaction, like likes or dislikes?
Emotional conditioning.
If a child is scared by a loud dog (US) and later fears just seeing a dog, what has the sight of the dog become?
The sight of the dog becomes the Conditioned Stimulus (CS).
In what order do generalization and discrimination typically occur during the learning curve?
Generalization happens first (responding to categories), followed by Discrimination (refinement).
What process occurred when Little Albert began fearing rabbits and dogs in addition to the white rat?
Generalization.
What is the simple definition of generalization?
Seeing similarities.
What is the simple definition of discrimination?
Noticing differences.
What is Acquisition in the learning curve?
The initial learning stage where a signal (CS) first predicts an important event (US).
What occurs when a learned response gradually disappears because the signal (CS) is no longer followed by the important event (US)?
Extinction.
What is Spontaneous Recovery?
A temporary return of an extinguished response after a break.
What does Spontaneous Recovery reveal about the nature of extinction?
It shows extinction "covers up" learning rather than completely erasing it.
What is the Principle of Equipotentiality?
The behaviorist idea that any stimulus can be associated with any response with equal ease.
What concept contradicts the Principle of Equipotentiality?
Biological Constraints on Learning.
What term refers to the fact that organisms are genetically "pre-wired" to learn certain associations for survival?
Evolutionary Preparedness.
What is a real-world example of biological constraints in learning regarding medical treatments?
Cancer patients often develop taste aversions to food eaten before chemotherapy.
What does evolutionary preparedness suggest about the nature-nurture debate?
It shows learning theory interacts with innate biological factors (Nature-Nurture Interaction).
What was B.F. Skinner's key invention used to study animal behavior and rewards?
The Operant Conditioning Chamber (Skinner Box).
According to Skinner, what is behavior shaped by?
Its consequences.
How did Skinner differentiate his view of behavior from prior stimulus-elicited models?
Behavior is "emitted" and then strengthened or weakened by what follows.
In Skinner's ABC Model, what does "A" stand for?
Antecedent (Stimulus/Cue).
In Skinner's ABC Model, what does "B" stand for?
Behavior (Response).
In Skinner's ABC Model, what does "C" stand for?
Consequence (Reinforcement/Punishment).
What is "shaping" in operant conditioning?
Reinforcing successive approximations to teach a complex behavior.
What occurs in operant conditioning when a behavior stops because its reinforcement has ceased?
Extinction.
What is Positive Reinforcement?
Adding something desirable (e.g., food, praise) to increase a behavior.
What is Negative Reinforcement?
Removing something aversive (e.g., stopping a shock) to increase a behavior.
What is Positive Punishment?
Adding something aversive (e.g., a fine, a slap) to decrease a behavior.
What is Negative Punishment?
Removing something desirable (e.g., taking away a phone) to decrease a behavior.
What is the fundamental difference in goal between reinforcement and punishment?
Reinforcement strengthens behavior; Punishment weakens it.
How does immediacy affect the effectiveness of reinforcement and punishment?
Immediate consequences are more effective than delayed ones.
What can occur when an organism perceives it has no control over unpleasant consequences?
Learned helplessness.
According to the text, what is the primary feeling associated with negative reinforcement?
Relief.
According to the text, what are the primary feelings associated with punishment?
Pain or loss.
What is Habituation?
Becoming used to a repeated, familiar stimulus and identifying contexts where behavior is appropriate.
How does Social Learning Theory differ from traditional behaviorism regarding our role in the environment?
We have an active role in selecting and modifying our environment.
According to Bandura, what two types of determinants influence behavior?
External determinants (rewards/punishment) and internal determinants (beliefs, thoughts, expectations).
What are the four internal cognitive processes required for observational learning?
Attention, Retention, Reproduction, Motivation.
What two factors influence the "Motivation" stage of observational learning?
Vicarious reinforcement and vicarious punishment.
What is Vicarious Reinforcement?
Observing someone else receive a reward, increasing the likelihood of imitating the behavior.
What is Vicarious Punishment?
Observing someone else be punished, decreasing the likelihood of imitating the behavior.
What is "modelling"?
The process of observing and imitating a specific behavior demonstrated by a model.
What evidence suggests that social learning can start as early as birth?
Babies cry in their mother tongue (e.g., French babies with rising accents).
In the context of eating disorders, what mechanism makes behaviors like restricting or purging self-perpetuating?
Negative reinforcement (removing intense anxiety).
What type of learning produces phobias (intense and irrational fears)?
Classical conditioning.
What is Aversion Therapy?
Using punishment (e.g., electric shock or nausea-inducing drugs) to create a negative association with unwanted behavior.
What is Systematic Desensitization Therapy?
Gradual exposure to a feared object while in a state of relaxation.
What is Flooding Therapy?
Immediate and intense confrontation of the fear without escape until the fear response "burns out."
What is the general term for using conditioning procedures to treat behavioral problems like phobias?
Behavior modification.
What is a common application of behaviorism in classroom education?
Token economies.
What three operant conditioning strategies were applied to the "Leo" case study?
What two social learning strategies were used for Leo in the kindergarten case study?
What is the primary criticism regarding behaviorism's view on free will and agency?
It is deterministic (views humans as passive products of the environment).
What major role in human behavior does behaviorism ignore, according to critiques?
Memory, problem-solving, and beliefs (cognitive processes).
What ethical concerns are raised by behaviorism?
Potential for manipulation and control.
What complex human behaviors does behaviorism struggle to explain?
Language acquisition, creativity, and insight.
Who is famously associated with the critique of Skinner's behaviorism regarding language acquisition?
Chomsky.
