What is a landslide?
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A general term that includes many different kinds of mass movement.
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What is a landslide?
A general term that includes many different kinds of mass movement.
What does Darcy's law state about flow rate?
The flow rate Q is proportional to the cross-sectional area A times the hydraulic gradient.
What is the term for the slope of the piezometric surface in an aquifer?
Hydraulic gradient.
What is a rock body that holds water but does not allow easy flow through it?
Aquitard.
What does Darcy's law describe?
The flow of a fluid through a porous medium.
What is a major feature of the kandic subsurface soil horizon?
Accumulation of low activity clays.
What is the significance of the number 87827039266?
It appears to be a numerical sequence or identifier, but without context, its significance is unclear.
What does the term 'Simoom' mean?
Poison wind.
What type of relationship does Darcy's law describe between flow velocity and hydraulic gradient?
Linear.
What is saltwater intrusion?
The movement of saline water into fresh water aquifers.
What is an Aquitard?
An underground layer that prevents the flow of groundwater from one aquifer to another.
What is specific retention?
The portion of groundwater that remains as a film on particles or in pore spaces.
What forms the boundary between unsaturated and saturated subsurface flow?
The groundwater table.
What direction do Polar Easterlies blow in the Northern Hemisphere?
From North-East to South-West.
What are the two different zones where groundwater occurs in nature?
Unsaturated zone and saturated zone.
Where does flow occur in the unsaturated zone?
Beneath the land surface and above the groundwater table.
What is El Niño?
A climate pattern that affects weather significantly.
What happens when the wind blows in a curved path?
The centrifugal force acts on the wind, outward from the center of curvature.
Who formulated Darcy's law?
Henry Darcy.
Which oceanic plate subducts below the Asiatic plate near the Japan Trench?
The Pacific plate.
What does the Antarctic plate cover?
The entire lithospheric Antarctica continent.
What branch of earth sciences is based on Darcy's law?
Hydrogeology.
How many large plates is the lithosphere divided into?
Six large plates and many smaller plates.
What is the resultant wind called when these forces are balanced?
Gradient wind.
Where does the Foehn wind blow?
Along the Northern slope of the Alps, affecting Switzerland.
How do the northern trade winds move due to the Coriolis effect?
They move away from the subtropical high in a clockwise direction out of the northeast.
What is the largest tectonic plate?
The Pacific plate.
What is seismology?
The science that studies various aspects of seismic waves generated during earthquakes.
What happens to hydraulic pressure below the water table?
It increases with increasing depth.
What is the speed of the third object?
~26 m/s
How are the westerlies deflected in the Southern Hemisphere?
To the left, becoming North Westerlies.
How thick are tectonic plates in oceanic areas?
Between 5 to 100 kilometers.
What is the saturated zone?
The layer where soil and rock are fully saturated with water.
Which term refers to a rock formation that does not hold water?
Aquifuge.
What are hot winds characterized by?
Intense heat and low relative humidity.
Which cold-water species are attracted to the California coast during La Niña?
Squid and salmon.
What is necessary for liquids or gases to flow through a material?
Voids or interconnected pore spaces.
What happens to trade winds during El Niño?
They weaken.
At what depth do intermediate depth earthquakes originate?
Between 50 to 240 km.
What are the two basic types of seismic waves?
Body waves and Surface waves.
What weather conditions are experienced in the northern U.S. and Canada during El Niño?
Drier and warmer than usual.
What surrounds the Antarctic plate?
Oceanic lithosphere.
What factors influence the flow of water through aquifers?
Porosity and permeability of geological structures.
What generates body waves?
The release of energy at the focus of the earthquake.
What is flow in granular media?
The movement of fluids through materials composed of grains, such as sand or gravel.
What causes saltwater intrusion in coastal aquifers?
The pumping of groundwater and the higher density of seawater compared to freshwater.
What is the range of the Modified Mercalli Intensity Scale?
From imperceptible shaking to catastrophic destruction.
How do the southern trade winds diverge?
They diverge out of the subtropical high toward the equatorial trough from the southeast in a counterclockwise direction.
What factors influence the flow rate according to Darcy's law?
The cross-sectional area A and the hydraulic gradient.
What do the volcanoes of the circum-Pacific belt and mid-continental belt represent?
They represent volcanic activity along convergent plate boundaries.
What are Rossby waves also known as?
Planetary waves.
What is the angular velocity of Earth?
7.3 x 10^-5 rad/s.
What is an Aquiclude?
An Aquitard that does not allow groundwater to pass through at all.
How does recharge occur in the saturated zone?
By percolation of water from the land surface through the unsaturated zone.
What are some indicators of creep?
Curved tree stems, tilted monuments, distorted fences, and bends in lower parts of telephone or electric poles.
From where do the westerlies blow?
From the horse's latitude (high pressure belt) to the temperate low pressures.
How does permeability differ from porosity?
Porosity measures how much water can be retained, while permeability measures how easily water can pass through.
What is an unconfined aquifer?
An aquifer not overlain by any confining layer but has a confining layer at its bottom.
What is solifluction?
The failure of saturated soil or rock debris in active layers in periglacial regions.
What does the Earth-atmosphere system maintain a balance between?
The energy that reaches Earth from the sun and the energy that flows from Earth back out to space.
Who developed the Richter scale?
Charles F. Richter.
What is the effect of Harmattan on the weather in the Western coast of Africa?
The weather suddenly becomes dry and pleasant.
Where is the Cocos Plate located?
Between Central America and the Pacific Plate.
What type of clays accumulate in the kandic subsurface soil horizon?
Low activity clays.
What can cause changes in the Earth-atmosphere system?
Natural phenomena like volcanoes or human activities.
What is an aquiclude?
A geological formation that does not allow water to pass through.
What happens at transform faults?
There is neither construction nor destruction of the plate; the relative motion is generally parallel to the fault line.
What causes the Coriolis force?
The rotation of the Earth.
What is the preferred path of moisture movement in the saturated zone?
Horizontal movement toward aquifer discharge areas.
Why do westerlies blow more strongly in the Southern Hemisphere?
Because uniform water expanses predominates landmasses.
What are the characteristics of rock materials that affect groundwater movement?
Porosity, Permeability, Specific yield, Specific retention capacity.
How extensive are local winds?
They are local in extent.
Which plate is mostly associated with the Saudi Arabian landmass?
Arabian Plate.
What is a confined aquifer?
An aquifer where groundwater is held under pressures greater than atmospheric pressure by confining layers.
Up to what height does frictional force affect the wind?
Up to 1 km above the surface.
What are the main types of volcanic materials discharged during eruptions?
Gases and vapour, lavas, fragmental materials, and ashes.
What forces the ascent of magma during a volcanic eruption?
An enormous volume of gases and vapor.
What is the term for the ease with which water can move through an aquifer?
Hydraulic conductivity.
Where are common volcanic eruptions typically found?
Along destructive or convergent plate boundaries.
When is a hazard considered a disaster?
When it affects a certain population.
What are the potential consequences of hazards?
Economic disruptions and environmental damage.
What is the saturated zone?
The area below the surface where water is available to supply wells and springs, correctly referred to as groundwater.
What is the Benioff zone?
A deep active seismic area in a subduction zone.
In what type of fluids do Rossby waves naturally occur?
Rotating fluids.
How does specific retention change with grain size?
It increases with decreasing grain size.
Between which latitudes do the trade winds generally blow?
Between 5° and 25°.
What does Earth's energy budget describe?
The balance between radiant energy from the sun and energy flowing back to space.
What is an aquifer?
A geological formation that can store and transmit water.
What is the enlarged form of the volcanic vent called?
Volcanic crater or caldera.
How do the speeds of surface waves compare to body waves?
Surface waves travel slower than body waves.
What portion of the electromagnetic spectrum does most solar energy fall into?
The visible portion.
What is normally brought to the surface by upwelling?
Cold and nutrient-rich water.
What is the Ghyben-Herzberg relation?
The hydrostatic equilibrium relationship between columns of fresh and high density seawater.
What happens at high latitudes regarding radiant energy?
More energy is emitted than absorbed.
What happens when there is a sudden burst of heavy rain?
Rainwater cannot infiltrate fast enough and enters the river via surface runoff.
How do the effects of volcanic earthquakes compare to tectonic earthquakes?
Volcanic earthquakes affect a smaller area than tectonic earthquakes.
Where are local winds confined?
To the lowest levels of the troposphere.
What characterizes the gradient wind in terms of pressure zones?
It occurs when there is a low pressure zone surrounded by high pressure, or vice versa.
Why does seawater lie underneath freshwater in coastal aquifers?
Because seawater has a higher density than freshwater.
What is the result of increased surface runoff during heavy rain?
A sudden and large increase in the river’s discharge.
What are Karaburun Winds and where do they occur?
Winds similar to Foehn, blowing in Java (Indonesia) and harmful to the tobacco crop.
What are some factors that reflect the sun's energy back to space?
Clouds, atmospheric molecules, aerosols, and Earth's land, snow, and ice surfaces.
When are jet streams typically strongest?
In the winter, due to greater temperature contrast between cold continental and warm oceanic air masses.
What is the effect of the pressure difference between saltwater and freshwater columns?
It causes a flow of saltwater to the freshwater column until pressure equalizes.
What is another name for an unconfined aquifer?
Water table or phreatic aquifer.
What is the result of the Earth-atmosphere system's attempts to restore balance?
Changes in the Earth's temperature.
What type of energy does the Earth system emit to space?
Thermal radiant energy, mainly in the infrared part of the electromagnetic spectrum.
What is the property of an aquifer that measures its ability to transmit water under a sloping piezometric surface?
Transmissivity.
Which term refers to the volume of voids in a rock or sediment?
Porosity.
What happens to the waters off the Pacific coast during La Niña?
They are colder and contain more nutrients than usual.
What is the unsaturated zone?
The layer where soil and rock are not fully saturated with water.
How can landslides be classified?
Based on the material involved and the type of movement.
What are hot winds characterized by?
Intense heat and low relative humidity.
What is specific yield?
The ratio of the volume of water that moves from a water-filled rock due to gravity to the total volume of rock.
What causes saltwater intrusion?
Groundwater withdrawal from coastal wells, constructing navigation channels, or oil field canals.
Which cold-water species are attracted to the California coast during La Niña?
Species like squid and salmon.
What is the function of the volcanic pipe?
It ejects volcanic materials.
What is creep in geological terms?
Extremely slow movement that cannot be seen but can be observed indirectly.
What is the depth range for normal or shallow depth earthquakes?
Up to 50 km.
Can the occurrence of natural disasters be controlled by humans?
No, but their impacts can be minimized with better mitigation and management measures.
What does saturated flow refer to in aquifers?
The movement of fluids when all pore spaces are filled with water.
What are the four classifications of geological formations based on hydraulic properties?
Aquifer, aquitard, aquiclude, and aquifuge.
What drives atmospheric and oceanic circulations globally?
The difference between incoming and outgoing radiant energy.
What is located at the top of the volcanic pipe?
The vent.
What are surface waves?
Waves that travel on the surface of the Earth.
What is the term for a rock body that can store and transmit significant amounts of water?
Aquifer.
What effect does El Niño have on marine life off the Pacific coast?
It weakens or stops upwelling, reducing nutrient availability.
What are tertiary or local winds?
Winds that blow in a particular locality due to local differences in temperature and pressure.
What factors determine permeability in soil?
The size of pore space and interconnectivity of the spaces.
What is the water table?
The level in the saturated zone where hydraulic pressure equals atmospheric pressure.
Where is there a surplus of radiant energy?
In the tropics.
What is a characteristic feature of a hardpan in soil?
Strongly cemented by silica.
How are the westerlies deflected in the Northern Hemisphere?
To the right, becoming South Westerlies.
What are trade winds known for?
Being constant, steady winds consistent in their direction.
What generates heat deep within the Earth?
The disintegration of radioactive elements.
How does the temperature difference between air masses affect the jet stream?
The greater the temperature difference, the faster the wind blows in the jet stream.
How can water be extracted from an aquifer?
By drilling a well and using water pumps or manually with a rope and bucket.
What are the main characteristics of Polar Easterlies?
Extreme coldness, stability, and low moisture content.
What is a hazard?
A phenomenon or natural condition with the potential to cause loss of lives, injury, and destruction of properties.
What is the unsaturated zone?
The area immediately below the land surface that contains both water and air.
What does hydraulic conductivity represent?
The ability of a geologic structure to transmit water.
What is the Simoom wind known for?
Causing dust storms and obstructing visibility.
Who invented the Modified Mercalli Intensity Scale?
Giuseppe Mercalli.
What does permeability measure in rocks or soil?
The capability to transmit water through its pore spaces.
How does El Niño affect the Pacific jet stream?
It causes the jet stream to move south of its neutral position.
What is the effect of the Foehn wind?
It melts snow, makes the weather pleasant, and aids in the early ripening of grapes.
What causes the formation of the jet stream?
The thermal effect between two air masses of very different temperature and the impact of Coriolis force.
What are ocean ridges and where are they located?
They are linear features situated along constructive plate margins, where two tectonic plates are moving away from each other.
What are Rossby waves?
Large-scale undulations in the westerly winds related to an ideal form of motion.
How many levels of intensity are on the Modified Mercalli Intensity Scale?
12 increasing levels of intensity.
What effect does El Niño have on ocean water?
Warm water is pushed back east toward the west coast of the Americas.
What causes local winds?
Local differences in temperature and pressure.
When does the gradient wind occur?
During cyclonic or anticyclonic movement of air around low and high pressure zones.
What is the Loo?
A hot and dry wind blowing in Northern India and Pakistan from the North-West and West to the East.
What is an Aquifuge?
Another term for an Aquiclude, which does not allow groundwater to pass.
What causes the origin of magma?
Lowering of melting point due to reduction in pressure from overlying load.
What is the jet stream?
Narrow zones of very high wind speed, often exceeding 100 miles per hour.
What type of precipitation is primarily caused by Polar Easterlies?
Mainly in the form of snow.
From where do polar easterlies originate?
From high-pressure areas of the polar highs at the North and South Poles.
What type of flow is assumed in Darcy's law?
Laminar flow.
What happens if there is an imbalance in the Earth’s energy budget?
The Earth's temperature will eventually increase or decrease to restore energy balance.
Which plate is subducted under the continental crust?
The oceanic plate, which has higher density.
What type of plate margin do ocean ridges represent?
Constructive plate margins.
What does a seismogram reflect?
The changing intensity of the vibrations.
What would a change in the regional distribution of radiant energy affect?
Weather and ocean circulation patterns.
What are the names given to the westerlies in the Southern Hemisphere?
Roaring forties, furious fifties, and shrieking sixties.
What is produced when the subducted slab melts under pressure and temperature?
Magma.
What are the three kinds of jet streams?
Polar jet stream, subtropical jet, and tropical easterly jets.
What are hot winds characterized by?
Intense heat and low relative humidity.
What happens to the waters off the Pacific coast during La Niña?
They become colder and contain more nutrients than usual.
What are the three types of earthquakes based on depth of origin?
Normal (shallow), intermediate, and deep-focus earthquakes.
What causes the volcanoes of the island arcs and festoons off the east coast of Asia?
Subduction of oceanic crust beneath a continental plate.
What are the trade winds?
Winds that blow out of the subtropical highs toward the equatorial trough in both hemispheres.
What is the term for a rock formation that completely prevents water flow?
Aquiclude.
What is the speed of the first object?
~11 m/s
What does the Modified Mercalli Intensity Scale measure?
The strength of an earthquake based on observations.
What is the preferred path of moisture movement in the unsaturated zone?
Vertical movement by percolation toward the saturated zone.
What direction do Polar Easterlies blow in the Southern Hemisphere?
From South-East to North-West.
What is the speed of the second object?
~15 m/s
What is the function of an Aquitard?
To prevent the movement of groundwater between aquifers.
What is the rate of movement of groundwater described as?
Very slow.
What is an aquitard?
A geological formation that restricts water flow but can still store some water.
What geological feature is created by the subduction of a denser oceanic plate?
Trenches.
What types of materials are included in volcanic materials?
Lavas, volcanic dusts and ashes, fragment materials.
What is the first assumption of Darcy's law?
The soil is saturated.
What defines cold winds?
Winds that induce a cold wave due to their temperature being below the freezing point.
Are all soils permeable?
Yes, all soils, including stiff clay, have some level of permeability due to voids.
What instrument is used to record seismic waves?
Seismograph.
What is the zig-zag line produced by a seismograph called?
Seismogram.
What effect does the Loo have on temperature?
It raises the temperature abruptly and may threaten sunstroke.
What shape is a volcano usually?
Circular or nearly circular.
What type of lava is associated with violent volcanic explosions?
Acidic lava.
What is the average rate of water transmission through permeable soils?
A few centimeters per day.
What is the significance of the Ghyben-Herzberg principle?
It is widely used by hydrogeologists to study seawater and freshwater movement.
What does hydraulic conductivity refer to?
The movement of water through soil or rock type.
What can a large increase in river discharge lead to?
A flash flood.
Where are rock slides commonly found?
In rocky areas, especially when joints are filled with clay.
Where is the Brickfielder wind found?
In the Victoria province of Australia.
What can scientists determine from seismograms?
Time, epicenter, focal depth, type of faulting, and energy released.
What is the shape of the vent in a volcanic cone?
Circular or nearly circular.
What is the Santa Ana wind and where does it blow?
A warm wind blowing in Argentina and Uruguay from the Andes towards the plains, also called cool Foehn.
Which plate is located north of New Guinea?
Caroline Plate.
How does La Niña affect marine life?
It supports more marine life and attracts more cold-water species.
How does La Niña affect marine life?
It supports more marine life due to increased nutrients.
What is a strong, hot, dust-laden wind in North America called?
Black Roller.
What happens to water flow as hydraulic conductivity increases?
It becomes easier for water to flow through the medium.
What is an aquifer?
An underground layer of rocks that can hold water.
Which direction does the Black Roller wind blow?
From the South-West to the North-West.
What materials typically make up Aquitards?
Layers of clay or non-porous rocks.
What can cause earthquakes in addition to tectonic activity?
Volcanoes.
What is meant by steady-state flow?
A condition where the flow rate remains constant over time.
What type of wind is blowing in Central America?
Monsoon wind.
What can lead to floods besides prolonged rainfall?
Brief periods of heavy rain.
How far can the effects of a volcanic explosion be felt?
In an area 10 to 20 miles around its base.
What is the role of trenches in tectonic plate boundaries?
Trenches are situated along convergent or destructive margins, where the oceanic lithosphere is destroyed and recycled back into the Earth.
What is the top of the saturated surface in an unconfined aquifer called?
The water table.
What type of boundary surrounds the Antarctic plate?
Spreading boundary.
What is the direction of vibrations in S-waves?
Perpendicular to the wave direction in the vertical plane confined to the Earth's surface.
What happens at the zones where one tectonic plate goes down under another?
They are sites of most of the world’s active and explosive volcanoes.
What is Harmattan referred to as in the Guinea coast?
'Doctor'.
What type of waves are usually the most destructive in a large shallow focus earthquake?
Surface waves.
What term is used to explain groundwater and aquifer properties?
Hydraulic conductivity.
How does the velocity of surface waves compare to that of S-waves?
The velocity of surface waves is slightly less than that of S-waves.
Why are the trade winds also known as tropical easterlies?
Because they tend to blow out of the east.
When did South American fishermen first notice El Niño?
In the 1600s.
What are the characteristics of surface waves?
They have low velocity, low frequency, and long wavelength.
How does the Coriolis force act on a moving body?
It acts at a right angle to the direction of motion.
What does Darcy's law assume about the flow conditions?
The flow is continuous and steady.
What is the Koimbang wind known for?
It is a warm and dry wind blowing in California (USA).
What do the different rock types in India share in common?
Some similarity in the occurrence of groundwater.
What type of ground movement do Love waves exhibit?
Complex horizontal ground movement.
In which direction does the Coriolis force act in the northern hemisphere?
To the right of the direction of motion.
What type of well is associated with a confined aquifer?
Artesian wells.
How does an aquitard affect groundwater flow?
It retards groundwater flow and behaves like a semi-confining or impermeable leaky layer.
What forces balance to create the resultant wind?
Pressure gradient force, centrifugal force, and Coriolis force.
How is the average linear velocity of water flow calculated?
By dividing the volumetric flow rate by the effective porosity.
What is the rate of temperature increase with depth in the Earth?
1°C per 32 meters.
What causes the formation of Rossby waves in the Earth's ocean and atmosphere?
The rotation of the planet.
What are hot winds characterized by?
Intense heat and low relative humidity.
What is a volcano?
A vent or opening through which heated materials are ejected from the Earth's interior.
What is the depth range for deep-focus earthquakes?
From 240 to 725 km.
What is the permeability of soil related to?
The gaps or voids present between soil particles.
What plays a main role in determining permeability?
The shape and arrangement of soil grains.
At what slope inclination can solifluction occur?
At slopes less than 5 degrees.
In what state does groundwater hydrology operate?
In the natural state.
What does El Niño mean in Spanish?
Little Boy.
What is the purpose of water pumps in relation to aquifers?
To pull water out from the underground layer.
What are the characteristics of trenches?
They are long narrow depressions with relatively steep sides.
How does the atmosphere and oceans restore the radiant energy imbalance?
By transporting heat from the tropics to the poles.
How is the Modified Mercalli Intensity Scale designated?
By Roman numerals.
What is Mistral?
A cold local wind in Spain and France blowing from North-West to South-East, causing a sudden drop in air temperature below freezing point.
What type of wind is the Norwester?
A warm, dry, and gusty wind in Northern New Zealand.
What does seismology provide information about?
The composition of the earth's interior.
Why are horizontal winds stronger than vertical winds in weather systems?
Due to the extreme thinness of weather systems and stable layering of air with great variations in density.
How does the Chinook wind affect the weather?
It blows along the Northern slope of the Alps, melting snow and making the weather pleasant.
What is the weather like near the source of the trade winds?
Clear and dry.
How is the magnitude of an earthquake determined on the Richter scale?
From the logarithm of the amplitude of waves recorded by seismographs.
What types of species can warmer waters during El Niño bring to normally cold areas?
Tropical species like yellowtail and albacore tuna.
How are polar easterlies affected by the Coriolis effect?
They are deflected westward.
At what depth does the subducted plate margin begin to melt?
At a depth of 100 km or more in the upper mantle.
What role does water play in rock slides?
Saturated clay acts as a lubricant, aggravating the sliding process.
Where does the Polar jet stream form?
Near the interface of the Polar and Ferrel circulation cells.
Why is El Niño associated with December?
Because it typically peaks around that time.
What movements can tectonic plates perform to cause earthquakes?
They can converge, diverge, or slide past each other.
How does fresh water interact with sea water according to the Ghyben-Herzberg equation?
Fresh water forms a wedge into sea water.
Which option indicates organic matter accumulation in soil?
Organic matter Fe and Al oxides accumulation.
Where is the Benioff zone typically located?
Beneath volcanic island arcs and continental margins above active subduction zones.
Why are aquifers sometimes called sponge rocks?
Because they act like sponges, holding water.
From which directions do Simoom winds blow in the Sahara desert?
From North-East and East to the West.
What do specific yield and specific retention together equal?
Porosity.
What causes earthquakes in the Benioff zone?
Differential motion resulting from subduction.
What is porosity in the context of rocks?
The amount of air space or void between soil particles.
What is a tectonic plate?
A gigantic, irregularly shaped rigid slab of rock that moves slowly over the asthenosphere.
What are polar easterlies?
Dry, cold prevailing winds that blow from polar highs towards subpolar lows.
What is the strong and rapidly moving circumpolar upper air westerly circulation called?
Jet streams.
What materials are typically ejected from a volcano?
Gases, water, liquid lava, and fragments of rocks.
What percentage of the sun’s incoming energy is reflected back to space?
About 30 percent.
What character does the Pacific plate have?
Almost oceanic in character.
What are the characteristics of hot winds?
Intense heat and low relative humidity.
What type of pressure is the water table under in an unconfined aquifer?
Atmospheric pressure.
How does the magnitude of frictional force change with height?
It decreases with height.
What geological processes contribute to the reduction in pressure leading to magma formation?
Fractures caused by the splitting of tectonic plates and their movement in opposite directions.
What is the purpose of the Richter scale?
To compare the size of earthquakes.
How does the decrease in phytoplankton affect marine life?
It impacts fish that eat phytoplankton and the predators that eat those fish.
What is a slump in geological terms?
A type of landslide characterized by rotational failure surfaces, commonly found in soil.
What happens when the stability of a slope changes?
It may lead to landslides.
What does the Ghyben-Herzberg equation describe?
The interface between salt water and fresh water.
What types of crust do many tectonic plates comprise?
Both continental and oceanic crust.
Why can Polar Easterlies cover long distances?
They are unimpeded by barriers.
How do Rossby waves differ from familiar waves like those on the sea?
They are dominated by nearly horizontal wind patterns.
What agricultural benefit does the Chinook wind provide?
It aids in the early ripening of grapes.
What assumption does the Ghyben-Herzberg relation make about the boundary between salt and fresh water?
It assumes a sharp boundary with no dispersion.
What are the two types of flows based on soil cohesion?
Earth flows (non-cohesive soil) and mudflows (cohesive soil).
What is rock fall?
The free falling action of rocks that are not in contact with the ground.
Name one of the groundwater provinces in India.
The Precambrian Crystalline province.
Where is rock fall commonly observed?
On vertical slopes and rock cliffs subjected to undercutting.
What are Gregale winds?
Winter winds in the central part of the Mediterranean region of Southern Europe.
What causes the existence of Rossby waves?
The rotation and spherical shape of the Earth.
What weather conditions are observed in the U.S. Gulf Coast and Southeast during El Niño?
Wetter than usual with increased flooding.
What type of winds are found in the Tarim basin in Central Asia?
Dust-laden fast-blowing winds blowing towards the North-East.
What causes the slow rate of movement of groundwater?
The tremendous amount of friction produced by water moving through spaces between particles of sand and gravel.
How do body waves move in the Earth?
In different directions.
Who developed the Ghyben-Herzberg relation?
Badon-Ghyben in 1888 and Herzberg in 1901.
What is the shape of the India-Australia-New Zealand plate?
Elongated rectangular.
What is the speed of the fourth object?
~7 m/s
What is an aquitard?
A geological formation with low to medium permeability that transmits limited quantities of groundwater.
What affects the velocity of body waves?
The density of the material.
How do Polar Easterlies affect the regions they traverse?
They influence the climates of those regions.
What are the structures formed by accumulated volcanic materials called?
Volcanic cones or volcanic mountains.
What happens when two convergent plates collide in a Benioff zone?
The heavier plate margin is subducted beneath the lighter plate boundary.
Which option includes all the characteristics affecting groundwater movement?
(4) (a), (b), (c) and (d).
What is the movement of very fine-grained material saturated with water called?
Flows.
What type of boundaries does the Philippine Plate have?
Subduction boundaries on both eastern and western sides.
Which continental regions are contained within the India-Australia-New Zealand plate?
Australia, peninsular India, and New Zealand.
What is the purpose of studying landslides?
To identify weak zones, classify hill slopes, and minimize the impacts of landslides.
How many groundwater provinces are delineated in India?
Eight groundwater provinces.
What are secondary waves also known as?
Shear waves.
What is a characteristic of the strength of polar easterlies?
They are often weak and irregular.
What forms can a rock slide take?
Planar or wedge slide.
What is runoff?
Water that flows on the land’s surface, making up about 10% of Earth’s water.
Under what condition can a confined aquifer behave like an unconfined aquifer?
When the water level falls below the base of the overlying confining layer.
What type of geological feature is the Pacific Ring of Fire?
A ring of subduction zones.
What forces act on a parcel of air at upper levels in the atmosphere?
Pressure gradient force and Coriolis force.
What is the general flow direction of the westerlies?
Poleward out of the subtropical high pressure cells.
What geological formations can form confined aquifers in volcanic rocks?
Interflow spaces and vesicular beds.
How do geostrophic winds move in relation to isobars?
They blow parallel to the isobars.
Which plates are among the largest?
The Pacific and Antarctic Plates.
What weather conditions can La Niña cause in the Pacific Northwest and Canada?
Heavy rains and flooding.
Are the westerlies generally stronger or weaker than trade winds?
Stronger.
What instrument is used to detect and record vibrations produced by earthquakes?
Seismographs.
What is the frictional force?
The drag near the surface that acts opposite to the direction of motion.
Where are trade winds most consistent?
When they cross the eastern sides of the oceans near the eastern portion of the subtropical high.
How is porosity determined?
By studying the shape and arrangement of soil particles.
What is another term for a tectonic plate?
Lithospheric plate.
What plates are located between South America and the Pacific Plate?
Nazca Plate.
In which part of the atmosphere do jet streams occur?
In the upper limit of the troposphere.
How does the area of the trade winds change throughout the year?
It moves north and south a few degrees of latitude with the sun.
What processes occur in the void spaces of soil particles?
Infiltration, groundwater movement, and storage.
What does the lithosphere carry?
Both granitic continental crust and basaltic oceanic crust.
What is meltwater?
Water derived from the melting of ice and snow.
What does the India-Australia-New Zealand plate mostly consist of?
Oceanic lithosphere.
Where do the materials ejected by a volcano come from?
The highly heated interior of the Earth.
How is the porosity of soil defined mathematically?
As the ratio of the volume of pore space in a unit of material to its total volume.
What is the 'focus' in an earthquake?
The place of occurrence of the earthquake.
What aspect of the soil mass is considered in Darcy's law?
The total cross-sectional area.
What happens to the trade winds after they cross large expanses of ocean?
They have a high potential for stormy weather.
What does the intensity of thermal emission from a surface depend on?
Its temperature.
What is a flood?
An event during which the volume of water in a stream/river exceeds its normal limits.
What is the opening at the summit of a volcanic cone called?
Volcanic vent or volcanic mouth.
What is bedrock in relation to landslides?
The basement rocks of the hill, which may be massive, fresh, structurally weak, or deformed.
Where does the subtropical jet stream form?
Near the boundary of the Ferrel and Hadley circulation cells.
What connects the volcanic vent to the interior of the Earth?
Volcanic pipe.
What causes magma to ascend during a volcanic eruption?
The enormous volume of accumulated explosive gases.
What regions does the Sirocco wind reach after crossing the Mediterranean Sea?
Italy, Spain, etc.
What are complex landslides?
Landslides that involve weathered rock material sliding along single or multiple failure surfaces.
What is the Hadley Cell and its location?
A thermally induced cell located between 10° to 30° latitudes, with rising air along the Equator.
What characterizes the Cenozoic Fault Basin province?
It is one of the groundwater provinces based on geological features.
Where can typical examples of flowing artesian wells be found in South India?
In the Cuddalore sandstone of Tamil Nadu and the Rajhamundry sandstone in Andhra Pradesh.
What is the size range of tectonic plates?
From a few hundred to thousands of kilometers across.
What geological feature has formed due to the Pacific Plate's motion?
Subduction zones.
What does the African Plate cover?
The entire African continent, surrounded by oceanic lithosphere.
In what year was the Richter scale developed?
What happens to phytoplankton during El Niño?
There are fewer phytoplankton due to reduced nutrients.
How much wider are weather patterns compared to their depth?
100 to 1000 times wider.
In which regions is solifluction commonly found?
In periglacial regions where freeze and thaw is common.
What type of accumulation is not a feature of the kandic subsurface soil horizon?
Carbonate clays accumulation.
What is an aquifuge?
A geological formation that is completely impermeable to water.
What types of rock are found in India?
Rock types of different ages from Archaean to Recent.
What is a Chinook wind?
A hot and dry wind that blows along the Eastern slope of the Rockies.
How are earthquakes classified?
Based on their origin.
How wide is the belt of jet streams typically?
A few hundred kilometers.
What types of materials predominantly make up aquitards?
Silt and clay.
What was the full name used by fishermen for El Niño?
El Niño de Navidad.
How does the density of seawater affect pressure in aquifers?
The pressure under a column of saltwater is greater than that under a column of the same height of freshwater.
What are tectonic earthquakes?
Earthquakes that occur when the crust is subjected to strain due to tectonic plate movements.
What happens to centrifugal force when wind moves in a curved path?
It acts away from the center of curvature of the path.
Where are the volcanoes mainly situated in relation to the trenches?
On the continental side of the trenches.
What does the motion of the ground surface beneath a seismograph affect?
The response of the seismograph and the resulting seismogram.
What is a flowing artesian well?
An artesian well where the water level stands above the land surface.
What are the two types of vapour involved in volcanic eruptions?
Phreatic vapour and magmatic vapour.
What is fast-moving volcanic ash saturated with water called?
Ash flows.
What is the common name for the tricellular meridional circulation?
Tricellular circulation.
When do tropical easterly jets occur?
During the Northern Hemisphere summer in tropical regions.
In which direction do surface winds move in atmospheric tricellular circulation?
From high to low-pressure areas.
What typically triggers the formation of tropical easterly jets?
Where dry air encounters more humid air at high altitudes.
What type of lithosphere does the Pacific Plate consist of?
Entirely oceanic lithosphere.
How are slopes categorized in the context of landslides?
By understanding the angle of inclination and its relation to various environmental factors.
What is the speed comparison between P waves and S waves?
P waves are faster than S waves.
What happens to warm water during La Niña events?
It is pushed more toward Asia.
What does upwelling during La Niña bring to the surface?
Cold, nutrient-rich water.
What is the role of Easterly winds in the Polar Cell?
Sinking air along the poles moves towards sub-polar lows, completing the polar cell circulation.
What is the Walker Cell and its significance?
A horizontal air circulation cell in the Southern Hemisphere responsible for upwelling along the South American Coast.
Where is the eastern boundary of the American Plate located?
Along the western sides of the Mid-Atlantic ridges.
What happens at higher altitudes when warm and cold air masses are quite deep?
Higher altitudes experience progressively larger air pressure differences, leading to very strong winds.
What characterizes flow in homogeneous systems?
Flow occurs uniformly throughout the medium due to consistent properties.
What causes the origin of gases and vapor in volcanic eruptions?
Heating of water that reaches underground through percolation of rainwater and meltwater.
Where do landslides typically occur?
On hillslopes.
What type of volcanic eruptions are associated with destructive or convergent plate boundaries?
Explosive type of volcanic eruptions.
What is a rock slide?
A movement of rocks along planar weak surfaces or joints that dip towards the slope.
How are the major plates, other than the Pacific plate, named?
After the continents embedded in them.
Where do trenches typically occur?
Near continental margins or associated with island arc systems.
What latitude range do polar easterlies occur?
Between 60 to 90 degrees latitude in each hemisphere.
Does the Modified Mercalli Intensity Scale have a mathematical basis?
No, it is an arbitrary ranking based on observed effects.
What is Bora?
An extremely cold and dry North-Easterly wind along the shore of the Adriatic Sea.
What happens to body waves when they encounter materials of different densities?
They reflect or refract, known as seismic reflection and seismic refraction.
What process leads to the formation of trenches in the ocean?
The subduction of a denser oceanic plate under another plate.
What does the water level in wells penetrating an unconfined aquifer indicate?
The position of the water table in the surrounding aquifer.
What role do the westerlies play in weather systems?
They contribute to the formation of extra-tropical cyclones.
What percentage of the total gases discharged during a volcanic eruption is made up of steam and vapour?
60 to 90 percent.
What does the total amount of water that can be contained in rock depend on?
The proportion of the gaps in a given volume of rock.
What primarily influences high altitude winds?
The Coriolis effect.
What is an aquiclude?
A geological formation with very low permeability that does not transmit any groundwater.
Where is the Fuji Plate located?
North-east of Australia.
What is the effect of surface friction on winds aloft?
Winds aloft are not affected by surface friction.
What is specific yield?
The amount of water that can be drained from a saturated rock material.
What does La Niña mean in Spanish?
Little Girl.
What compounds can be ejected along with volcanic gases?
Sulphurated hydrogen, hydrochloric acid, and volatile chlorides of iron and potassium.
What is another name for La Niña?
El Viejo or anti-El Niño.
What causes the westerlies to become westerly?
The Coriolis effect, which is more noticeable at higher latitudes.
What happens to a parcel of air as it moves in response to a pressure gradient?
It is turned progressively sideways until forces balance.
What type of boundary characterizes the southern and eastern edges of the Pacific Plate?
Spreading boundary.
What materials can P waves travel through?
Solid, liquid, and gaseous materials.
What weather conditions are typically associated with the westerlies?
Stormy weather.
What is the primary nature of the Eurasia Plate?
Mostly continental.
What occurs when one tectonic plate dives under another?
The oceanic lithosphere is destroyed and recycled back into the interior of the Earth.
Where does the Chinook wind blow from and to?
From the Southern part of Colorado to British Columbia in Canada.
Where are slumps commonly found?
In areas of intensely weathered rocks or on soil-rich slopes.
Which option is NOT a type of upper air circulation?
Hadley Circulation.
What does porosity refer to in the context of groundwater movement?
The volume of voids or spaces in rock materials.
What type of motion do Rayleigh waves have?
Rolling motion.
From where does the Sirocco wind blow?
From the Sahara desert.
At what temperature was the testing for Darcy's law conducted?
27°C.
What is Norte?
The polar wind in Central America in winter, known as Northern or Northerly in the Southern US.
How do secondary waves displace material?
At right angles to their path of travel.
What is the relationship between the Coriolis force and the speed of the moving body?
The Coriolis force is proportional to the speed of the moving body.
What are some examples of volcanic gases released during eruptions?
Carbon dioxide, nitrogen oxides, sulphur dioxide, hydrogen, and carbon monoxide.
What causes toppling failure in rocks?
When rocks are dislodged along very high angle slopes.
What man-made structures can be damaged by landslides?
Roads, railways, tunnels, and buildings in hilly regions.
What is produced when the pressure gradient force and Coriolis force balance?
Geostrophic wind.
What is the asthenosphere?
A semi-viscous layer of the Earth.
What characterizes the Levanter wind?
A strong Easterly cold wind in Southern Spain.
How does La Niña affect the jet stream?
It pushes the jet stream northward.
What causes density differences in the material through which P waves travel?
The compressions and expansions of the waves.
What factors can cause the stability of a slope to change?
Several factors acting alone or together.
What is the 'epicentre'?
The place on the earth's surface that experiences the seismic event first, located perpendicular to the focus.
What are the two types of volcanic eruptions?
Violent explosive central type and quiet fissure type.
How do landslides impact the landscape?
They change the geomorphic conditions and modify topography and drainage.
What type of plate is the Pacific Plate?
It is largely an oceanic plate.
What resources can landslides destroy?
Forests and other natural resources.
What factors contributed to the delineation of groundwater provinces in India?
Varied climatic, geomorphic, geological, and hydrological conditions.
What are earthquakes also known as due to their origin?
Tectonic hazards.
What does specific retention capacity refer to?
The amount of water retained in rock material after drainage.
What is an aquifuge?
A geological formation with low permeability and porosity that does not transmit or contain appreciable quantities of groundwater.
How does prolonged rainfall lead to flooding?
It saturates the ground, preventing the soil from storing water and increasing surface runoff.
What are some local names for the Sirocco wind in Africa?
'Khamsin' in Egypt, 'Gibli' in Libya, 'Chilli' in Tunisia.
What happens to rainwater when the ground is saturated?
It enters the river much faster, leading to higher discharge levels and potential floods.
What is the primary feature of the Polar Cell?
It is a thermally direct cell that is strongest during winter, extending from 65° to 90° latitudes.
Where does the Pacific Plate form an active transform fault?
In the California region of the U.S.A.
What is a Puna wind?
A cold local wind in the Andes region.
Why are P waves called primary waves?
Because they are the first to arrive during an earthquake.
What is a Blizzard?
A weather phenomenon affecting polar regions of Canada and the USA, causing temperatures to drop below freezing point.
What is the thickness of tectonic plates in continental areas?
More than 200 kilometers.
What happens when two columns of saltwater and freshwater are connected at the bottom?
The pressure difference causes a flow of saltwater to the freshwater column.
In which direction does the Coriolis force act in the southern hemisphere?
To the left of the direction of motion.
What is formed when the subducted plate margin melts?
Magma.
What determines the type of volcanic eruption?
The intensity of gases and vapor and the nature of the crustal surface.
What can influence the bedrock in a landslide scenario?
Tectonic forces from the deep interior or nearby structures like dams.
Through what type of materials can secondary waves travel?
Only through solid materials.
What is the significance of slope in landslides?
Slope is a common factor for landslides and relates to the angle of inclination of the land surface.
What is the direction of vibration in secondary waves?
Perpendicular to the direction of wave propagation.
What factors can affect the degree of slope in landslide studies?
Geomorphic conditions, bedrock, nature of overburden, vegetation, and drainage systems.
What climatic conditions are associated with the Hadley Cell?
Tropical monsoons and desert climates.
What motion characterizes the Pacific Plate?
Northwesterly motion.
What are P waves also known as?
Compressional waves.
What are Virasen winds?
Sea breezes along the Western coasts of Peru and Chile.
What is the Southern Buster?
A fast blowing cold and dry wind in New South Wales, Australia.
What effect does the Chinook wind have on the environment?
Leads to snow melting and green grass sprouting even in winter.
What characterizes the Zonda wind?
A warm and dry wind blowing in Japan.
What is the 'Pacific Ring of Fire'?
A collection of volcanoes bordering the Pacific Ocean.
What is the range of porosity in rocks?
From zero to around 60%.
What is a limitation of the Ghyben-Herzberg equation regarding fresh water discharge?
It assumes fresh water discharges into the ocean at a single point, which is an impossibility.
How is the Eurasian Plate classified?
It may be called a continental plate.
In which types of rocks can groundwater occur in confined conditions?
Igneous and metamorphic rocks, in joints and fractures.
What lies below the lithosphere?
The asthenosphere.
How do upper atmospheric winds move compared to surface winds?
In the opposite direction.
How does atmospheric tricellular circulation affect Earth?
It influences Earth's climate.
How do P waves vibrate in relation to wave propagation?
They vibrate parallel to the direction of wave propagation.
How do winter temperatures change during a La Niña year in the North?
They are cooler than normal.
What does atmospheric tricellular circulation explain?
The meridional circulation of the atmosphere.
What is permeability in relation to groundwater?
The ability of rock materials to transmit water.
Which direction does the Sirocco wind blow?
Northerly direction.
What is the primary characteristic of an aquiclude?
It totally excludes groundwater flow.
What is a snow avalanche?
Fast moving snow along steep slopes.
What is another name for an aquiclude?
Confining or impermeable layer.
What is the most common cause of flooding?
Prolonged rainfall.
What are the two types of body waves?
Primary waves (P) and Secondary waves (S).
What is the Pampero?
Cold polar winds blowing fast in the Pampas region of South America.
How do the westerlies compare to trade winds in terms of direction consistency?
The westerlies tend to be less consistent in direction than the trade winds.
What are the local names for the Sirocco wind in Spain and the Canary Islands?
'Leveche' in Spain and 'Laste' in the Canary and Madeira islands.
What latitudinal range do the westerlies occur in?
Between about 35° and 65°N and S latitudes.
Why are secondary waves called 'secondary'?
Because they arrive later than primary waves.
What are Papagayo winds known for?
Fast blowing North-Easterly cold and dry winds in the coastal region of Mexico.
What does the American Plate cover?
Most of the North and South American continents and the eastern part of Russia, including the Kamchatka peninsula.
What is the Joran wind?
A cold wind from the Jura mountains (Switzerland) to Lake Geneva (Italy).
In which geological settings are surface waves particularly destructive?
In sedimentary basins.
What other factors can trigger earthquakes besides tectonic plate movements?
Human activities and volcanic eruptions.
What is a debris slide?
A slide of weathered rock material comprising rocks and soil mix along rotational failure surfaces.
What type of volcano is associated with explosive eruptions?
Explosive type or central eruption type.
What is the Indo-Gangetic Alluvial province known for?
It is one of the eight groundwater provinces in India.
Why is the Sirocco wind also known as blood rain?
Due to the reddish sand brought from the Sahara desert.
What type of waves are secondary waves classified as?
Transverse or transitional waves.
What does the cellular circulation system influence besides the atmosphere?
Ocean water movement.
What is the significance of grouping areas into groundwater provinces?
It helps in understanding groundwater occurrence and management.
What is the Ferrel Cell and its latitude range?
A thermally indirect cell extending from 30 to 60° latitude, induced by dynamic forces.
What weather conditions can La Niña lead to in the southern U.S.?
Drought.
Why are P waves referred to as compression waves?
Because they travel through materials as a succession of compressions and expansions.
What causes the circulation in the Walker Cell?
Differences in surface pressure and temperature over the Western and Eastern tropical Pacific Ocean.
How do winter temperatures change during a La Niña year in the South?
They are warmer than normal.
What causes flooding in rivers?
When a river’s discharge exceeds its channel’s volume, causing it to overflow onto the floodplain.
What type of volcanic eruption occurs when magma reaches the Earth's surface?
Violent volcanic eruption.
What can trigger a snow avalanche?
Earthquake, rain, vibrations due to blasting, flying aircrafts, and human interventions.
What are Maestro winds?
North-Westerly winds in the central part of the Mediterranean region.
What effect does La Niña have on trade winds?
They become even stronger than usual.
What do secondary waves create in the materials they pass through?
Crests and troughs.
What effect can La Niña have on hurricane seasons?
It can lead to a more severe hurricane season.
In which hemisphere do the westerlies attain their greatest consistency and strength?
In the Southern Hemisphere.
Where do Ponant winds occur?
Cold Westerly winds in the Mediterranean region, especially the Corsica coast.
Why do the westerlies have greater consistency in the Southern Hemisphere?
Because there is less land to affect the development of winds.
What characterizes the western edge of the American Plate?
Converging boundary.
What defines the Bise wind?
An extremely cold and dry wind in France and Switzerland.
How does the Walker Cell affect weather patterns?
It creates a pressure gradient from East to West, influencing rainfall in Australia.
