What action did Facta take to try and stop Mussolini?
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Requested the King declare martial law + crush the fascists.
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What action did Facta take to try and stop Mussolini?
Requested the King declare martial law + crush the fascists.
When and where was the Paris Peace conference?
January 1919 Versailles
Who was the new prime minister of Italy at the end of WW1?
Vittorio Orlando
What did the Italians feel that they deserved in the ToV?
Everything promised in the Treaty of London Fiume, a port on the Croatian coast as it had a large community of Italians
Who were the Big 3 at the Paris conference and what were their attitudes towards Italy?
Wilson, Lloyd-George, Clemenceau Condescending, did not see it as deserving of the 'great power' status
What did Italy end up receiving, to Orlando's horror?
Rejected Fiume, and other aspects of the ToV such as Balkan land
What did Orlando do in the conference in April and why?
Walk out His pleas for more land, due to fear of revolution and assassination, were ignored
What was Orlando eventually forced to do?
Resign as PM
Which group of people were angered by the ToV and what was this referred to?
Nationalists; d'Annunzio called it a 'mutilated victory'.
Who replaces Orlando as PM?
Francesco Nitti.
What did Nitti do about the ToV + how do the nationalists react?
Nothing - he accepts the terms given to not jeopardize relations with the allies; Are angered and disgusted - call him a Cagoia (abject coward).
How many members did the MVSN have?
300,000.
What was the importance of Mussolini creating the MVSN?
He was the commander-in-chief, so it strengthened his control over the blackshirts. Hoped to end fascist violence as he felt it was a threat to his support amongst the elite + middle-class as they were tiring of it. Squadristi could now only follow orders, and couldn't carry out their own violent acts.
How had the nature of the PNF changed after Mussolini became PM + what had the party grown to?
Power of ras and squadristi being diluted. Vast majority of support from middle-class. 783,000 members since the march on rome.
Why did Mussolini call a general election in 1924?
Wanted to provide the PNF with the parliamentary mandate that they currently lacked.
Why did Mussolini introduce the Acerbo Law?
To overcome the problem of proportional representation in parliament + ensure his party's majority.
Who drafted the Acerbo Law + when?
Giacomo Acerbo - 1924.
What was the Acerbo Law?
Party needs a threshold of 25%, and once achieved the biggest party automatically gets 2/3 seats. The remained 1/3 seats are distributed using prop. rep. to the other parties.
When + what was the occupation of Fiume?
12 September 1919; d'Annunzio led 2,000 men to seize the port of Fiume, and they did so without a fight.
Why did the occupation of Fiume happen?
Redemption for dead soldiers; Anger at the 'mutilated victory'; Fiume, for many Italians, was the greatest example of Italy's humiliating treatment at Versailles.
What did those who occupated Fiume call themselves?
Arditti - meaning elite WW1 soldiers, even though most were just ordinary men.
How long did the occupation of Fiume last for + why?
15 months; Liberal gov did not want to take action incase the army refused to help and they would be seen as traitors.
When did the occupation of Fiume end?
Xmas day 1920 - Italian navy removed them.
What was the significance of the occupation of Fiume?
Exposed the weakness of the liberal gov; When Giolitti did act, he was seen as a traitor; Mussolini was inspired - promoted nationalism; Resembled fascist movements even though it wasn't a thing yet (eg. uniform).
What is Trenchismo?
The birth of Italy through the war (linked to Caparretto).
What is Trenchocrazia?
The new ruling elite (military).
What was unemployment like after WW1?
2 million unemployed due to soldiers demobilized and flooding the job market, and those hired to help the war effort became jobless.
What happened with inflation after WW1?
The lire collapsed in value, wiping out middle-class savings.
What happened to major companies after WW1?
Fiat struggled to stay afloat, and munitions companies like Ansaldo and Ilva collapsed, forcing banks like Banco di Sonto to close in 1921.
What and when was Biennio Rosso?
The 2 Red Years (1919-20) marked political turmoil with left-wing at its peak.
What happened during Biennio Rosso?
Labor and militancy strikes occurred, with anarchist and social radicals on the rise, inspired by events in Russia, leading to greater workers' rights and a possible revolution.
When was the largest strike of Biennio Rosso and how many workers were involved?
The largest strike occurred in September 1920, involving 400,000 workers.
What happened with Socialist Unions after WW1?
Membership rose to 2 million by 1920, strong in areas like Bologna where they controlled employment of rural laborers.
What happened with land grabs after WW1?
Peasants who had fought were promised land and many ended up seizing it from owners.
Why were land occupations after WW1 alarming the wealthy landowners?
They feared a rural revolution.
Why were the upper and middle classes looking towards right-wing organizations during the post-war crisis?
To provide an alternative to the weak liberal government in hopes they would confront and destroy the left-wing organizations pushing Italy towards a revolution.
Why was there a second extension of the franchise?
Liberals wanted to decrease strikes + riots by giving more people a way to express their political opinion
When was the second extension of the franchise and what did it expand the vote to?
1919, Additional 11 million men, Anyone man over 21 or someone who had served at the front
When did the Catholic party form and what was it called?
Partito Popolare Italiano (PPI), 1919
What were the results of the 1919 elections?
PSI - 156, PPI - 101, Liberals - lost 225
What were the consequences of the 1919 elections?
Liberals still manage to stay in control by forming a grand coalition with PSI + PPI, People begin to lose faith in democracy, Large coalition ineffective
When did Mussolini form the national organization of ex-soldiers, and what was it called?
23 March 1919, Fasci di Combattimento
Through what did Mussolini create the idea of fascism?
Through his experiences in the trenches, Trenchocrazia, Unity and pride from the war
What was the nature of the Fasci di Combattimento?
Ubiquitous, Had a national network of violence
When and what was the Fasci di Combattimento's first manifesto?
June 1919, Many left-wing values - 8 hour working day, anticlericalism, banning compulsory military service, end of the monarchy + establish a republic
How did the Fasci di Combattimento gain support?
Through violence against socialists.
What sort of violence did the Fasci di Combattimento carry out?
Beat people up with manganello clubs, force feed castor oil and toads, strip them, and sometimes kill them.
How had the fascists done in the 1919 elections?
They received less than 5,000 votes, so no seats.
Why did the fascists do so bad in the 1919 elections?
Their manifesto was mainly left-wing and didn't appeal to those who liked the violence.
What were squadrismo and the ras?
Ras were regional leaders/commanding officers, and squadrismo were small military units.
What happened on 15 April 1919 and what was the effect?
A fascist squad of 200-300 attacked a socialist demonstration in Milan and burned down Avanti! offices; the government didn't arrest anyone or attempt to stop them, leading Mussolini to realize the power of violence.
What did the socialists do to humiliate Mussolini after the 1919 elections?
They paraded a coffin symbolizing his political career through the streets of Milan.
How did the middle-class and elites feel about the fascist violence?
The middle-class responded positively, wealthy landowners were happy to see socialist land leagues destroyed, and police, army, and government were happy to tolerate violence in fear of a socialist revolution; some local police and army barracks even supplied military weapons to the squadristi, and some joined in, seeing squadristi as 'protectors' and heroes.
What were the squadristi like?
Uniform of black shirt, carried a revolver and a manganello, targeted socialists, beat them up, forced them to drink castor oil, there were even cases of murder.
What were the casualties and injuries due to the squadristi in the first five months of 1921?
200 killed, 1,000 wounded.
Why did Mussolini introduce a New Party Programme?
Due to their failures in the 1919 elections.
When was the 'New Programme' adopted and what did it involve?
May 1920; it was more conservative and right wing to appeal to those who liked the fascist violence, dropped mentions of removing the monarchy and church, and included compulsory military service.
What had the PNF grown to by the end of 1921?
200,000.
What was fascism's broad band of support united by?
Strong patriotism, hatred of the socialists and the weak Liberal government, belief in Mussolini as the man who could sweep away the weak Italy and lead it into a nationally united future.
When did Nitti resign and who replaces him?
9th June 1920; Giolitti.
Why was Giolitti disliked by nationalists?
Due to his anti-interventionist policy in WWI.
What is Giolitti's leadership like after he replaces Nitti?
He deals with strikes by giving into workers' demands, pressures banks to withdraw support for companies that wouldn't negotiate with strikers, which ended strikes but angered many groups such as nationalists and the wealthy, making him unpopular and a stark contrast to fascist violence.
What happened to a left-wing group in January 1921 and what was the effect?
Radical members of the PSI split and formed the PCI with support from Russia, closely aligned with the Bolsheviks. This gave credence to a communist revolution and played into the hands of the PNF as socialist opposition was weakened.
What was Mussolini claiming about socialism?
That he was the reason for Bienno Rosso's failure and that he had 'saved Italy' from a left-wing revolution.
What tactics of Giolitti's failed in 1921 and what did this lead to?
Compromise and transformismo failed as parties didn't want to work together, particularly PCI and PNF who wanted to see the government collapse. Giolitti attempted to absorb PNF by offering a place in the liberal bloc, hoping fascism could be tamed. Mussolini initially agreed, gained credibility, achieved electoral success, then announced he would vote for the opposition and wouldn't join the liberals.
What happened in the 1921 election?
There was a rise of fascism with 35 deputies, which was a disaster for Giolitti, forcing him to resign.
When did the fascists first have an electoral breakthrough?
In the general election in May 1921, they won 7%, securing 35 deputies.
When did the fascists form into an official political party and what was it called?
In October 1921, they formed the Partito Nazionale Fascista (PNF).
What was the dualistic approach that Mussolini was facing on his rise to becoming PM?
The Dual Policy, where the violence of squadristi provided fascist strength and the means to overthrow and seize power, while Mussolini wanted to achieve PM constitutionally.
When and what was the Pact of Pacification?
In July 1921, Mussolini called for an end to fascist violence and signed it in August.
What was a key issue facing Mussolini that led to him calling the Pact of Pacification?
Strong loyalty to the ras; Mussolini needed to assert his dominance and force the ras to follow his political direction.
What did Mussolini want to achieve by calling the Pact of Pacification?
He wanted the support of the church, knowing that the church would fear a rise in socialism if the violence stopped.
What happened as a result of the Pact of Pacification?
Ras condemned the pact and Mussolini faced backlash; he showed his political skill by resigning on 18 August if they weren't prepared to follow his political direction.
What was the outcome of Mussolini's resignation regarding the fascists?
Without his leadership, the fascists had no unity or direction.
What significant victory did Mussolini achieve over the Ras?
Mussolini won a significant victory as the Ras became subordinate to him once they reappointed him, demonstrating how crucial he was to the party.
What did Mussolini do to the Ras after he was reappointed?
He reorganised them and made it clear they were subordinate to him.
How did fascist popularity grow from the end of 1921 to 1922?
Ras and squads became more formally organised, targeting key districts; the new PM Facta and the government didn't interfere with the violence.
What was the status of PNF membership and fascist trade unions by September 1922?
PNF membership reached 320k and there were 0.5 million workers in fascist trade unions.
What was the situation in Italy by May-October 1922 regarding fascist control?
By May-October, fascists had become the de facto government in many Italian provinces.
What were Mussolini's attitudes to seizing power at the end of 1922?
Still favoured the dual policy. Encouraged squads to attack but still wanted to be accepted into gov coalition. Wanted to be PM constitutionally as it would give him a stronger position. Began to challenge the gov itself.
How were liberal politicians responding to Mussolini's rise at the end of 1922?
Orlando + Nitti called for a PNF coalition, but both had intentions of becoming PM themselves. Key liberals were more concerned with stopping their rivals within the party becoming PM rather than a fascist revolution.
Who were the key figures involved in the March on Rome?
Salandra, Facta, Orlando + Giolitti, Victor Emmanuel III.
What happened on the 24th October 1922?
Mussolini made a public speech asserting 'either we are allowed to govern or we will seize power by marching on Rome'.
What happened on the 27th October 1922?
Squadristi seized key buildings + occupied telephone exchanges.
How did Victor Emmanuel react to Facta's request for martial law + what is the consequence of this?
28th October declared it 9 a.m. the same morning, he changes his mind and refuses. Facta resigned. This critical mistake ensured fascist success.
What were some factors that influenced Emmanuel III's decision?
Was weak + indecisive. Lacked faith in Facta, Salandra convinced him not to sign it in hopes of being part of a fascist coalition. Feared the military would side with the fascists. His cousin, Duke of Acosta, was 'more manly', a fascist and favoured by Mussolini. Fear of what would happen if he signed it and the fascists still managed to be victorious.
What led to Mussolini being appointed PM?
Salandra, Orlando and Giolitti all recommend to the King to make M. PM as they hate each other so much.
What was Mussolini's act of political showmanship before becoming PM?
M. visits theatre during to as an act of political showmanship.
What was the significance of the March on Rome for Mussolini?
Mussolini believed fascism needed a strong, dynamic myth.
What were some difficulties facing Mussolini once he was appointed PM?
Only had 35 deputies in parliament, was at the mercy of the king and elites, and faced reservations from the Church.
What did Mussolini's Maiden Speech contain?
Offers to work with parliament mixed with threats of violence to those who challenged him.
What was the size of the fascist victory parade on the 31st?
50,000 fascists led by the quadrumvirs had a victory parade.
What was the role of the Ras in Mussolini's rise to power?
Ras were demanding a more revolutionary approach.
What was the King's position during Mussolini's rise to power?
The King showed weakness and supported Mussolini's appointment.
What was the significance of the 300,000 young men mentioned in Mussolini's Maiden Speech?
He warned parliament of the 300,000 young men he had ready to take violent action.
How did Mussolini placate the church?
Increased clerical pay, reinstated crucifixes in schools, PPI becoming absorbed into his party, and his pro-catholic policies encouraged the Vatican to support the PNF.
How did Mussolini placate the middle class?
Appointed Alberto De'Stefani as minister of finance, who was an orthodox economist and this move reassured them of no radical economic changes.
How did Mussolini stop other nationalists from being a threat/problem once he became PM?
Paid off d'Annunzio - makes him a 'prince', prevents the nationalist vote from being split - 28th October '22 announces a compromise between ANI + PNF, then Feb '23 absorbs the ANI into his party, confirming the PNF as the only nationalist party.
Why was Mussolini granted a year of emergency powers?
Parliament felt it was necessary for Italy to have at least a year of political calm.
What were the votes for Mussolini's emergency powers?
306 to 116.
What did Mussolini's emergency powers entail?
He could not be removed by parliament, had full power to govern + raise taxes without parliament approval for at least a year.
What 2 things did Mussolini do as PM to control the PNF?
Fascist Grand Council and MVSN.
When was the Fascist Grand Council established?
December 1922.
What was the Fascist Grand Council?
A rival organisation to the cabinet, appointed key figures eg. Italo Balbo, Michele Bianchi + Emilio de Bono, discussed key policy + elevated fascist leadership to the same level as the cabinet, all their power came directly from M.
What was the importance of Mussolini creating the Fascist Grand Council?
Undermined the liberal gov by essentially bypassing them - circumvents democracy. Centralised his power over his party - flattered those he appointed and gave them a sense of power, but they are fully answerable to him.
When was the MVSN created?
January 1923.
What was the MVSN?
Formalised the role of the squadristi within the state as a party-based paramilitary force.
