15C - 17C

55-65°C.

To observe whether an individual carries a mutant gene for a hereditary disease.

They allow the production of sufficient amounts of recombinant DNA for further analysis.

Yes, one miRNA can block translation of several different polypeptides.

Increased concentration of homocysteine in blood is associated with a higher risk of atherosclerosis and thrombosis, leading to cardiovascular disease.

Formation of dityrosines, oxidation of tryptophan, and reaction of free amino groups of lysine residues with aldehydes.

Hormones (e.g., insulin), therapeutic proteins (e.g., antibodies), and vaccines.

The use of biotechnology to produce different bioproducts by introducing new characteristics into recipient organisms.

They contain sequences that serve as binding sites for regulatory proteins, influencing translation efficiency.

It increases the efficiency of translation mainly due to increased stability of mRNA.

To visualize the protein of interest.

Retrovirus, adenovirus, lentivirus, and herpes simplex virus.

Cutting the investigated DNA into fragments using restriction endonuclease.

Using restriction fragment length polymorphism (RFLP).

By detecting and quantifying fluorophore-labeled targets.

To introduce new, favorable characteristics into organisms, such as resistance to insect attack.

Identification of criminals, murder victims, or for paternity tests.

Maxam and Gilbert method, and Sanger’s method.

It can change quickly due to alterations in metabolism and physiological conditions, influenced by regulatory protein binding.

Detection of DNA or RNA sequences directly in investigated tissue.

To target the sequence of interest.

The removal of a phosphate group from proteins, catalyzed by phosphatases.

To identify DNA library clones containing the sequence of interest.

The mixture is heated to 72°C for elongation of DNA from primers using thermostable DNA polymerase.

Preparation of peptides, proteins, antisense oligonucleotides, RNA interference, and gene therapy.

Binding of miRNA to target mRNA leads to quick elimination by ribonucleases and blocks translation elongation.

Cystic fibrosis.

They direct enzyme complexes to degrade mRNA molecules, decreasing their activity and preventing translation.

Prenatal diagnostics and oncology.

They bind to the CAP and internal ribosomal entry sites (IRES), which is essential for the initiation of translation.

Northern blotting is used for the detection of RNA, while Southern blotting is for DNA.

The sequence of nucleotides in DNA.

Replication origin and promoter sequences.

A population of host cells containing identical recombinant DNA.

A collection of DNA fragments from one organism that have been cloned into vectors for identification and isolation.

A collection of cloned DNA fragments from the whole genome of a cell.

Fixing the tissue to avoid chemical changes.

Hybridization probes or polymerase chain reaction (PCR).

The reaction of plasma proteins with glucose, responsible for chronic complications of diabetes.

They can change the level of binding properties of these initiation factors, thus altering the rate of translation initiation.

It is associated with inhibition of translation.

To inhibit the synthesis of a target protein by reducing the level of specific mRNA.

Chemical cleavage of DNA.

Genomic DNA library, Chromosome DNA library, and cDNA libraries.

Introduction of foreign objects, potential viral complications, and chance of inducing mutations.

The attachment of ubiquitin to target proteins is ATP-dependent.

Phosphorylation of eIF-2α by different protein kinases, leading to inhibition of translation initiation.

Cutting genomic DNA, separating fragments by gel electrophoresis, transferring to a membrane, and hybridization with a probe.

In situ hybridization.

To detect mutations and DNA insertions or deletions.

PCR or in situ hybridization.

A method of disease treatment that suppresses gene expression using double-stranded RNA.

A collection of cloned DNA sequences that are transcribed into mRNA in a particular cell or tissue.

Mutation of the gene coding for adenine deaminase.

Methylation, acetylation, and hydroxylation.

Detection of DNA sequences.

Detection of mutations, molecular classification of tumors, identification of viruses or bacteria, microbiological screening of food, and DNA amplification in forensic medicine.

Neurodegenerative disorders associated with unusual post-translational modifications of prions.

DNA composed of at least two parts from different organisms that can be replaced in a host organism.

To attach the DNA vector to the foreign DNA.

A technique that makes many identical copies of a piece of DNA, such as a gene.

Pepsinogen → pepsin, fibrinogen → fibrin, prothrombin → thrombin.

A small peptide that labels proteins for degradation by the proteasome complex.

The addition of a phosphate group to proteins, often catalyzed by kinases.

Diagnostics of human diseases.

Isolation of DNA fragments from the donor.

To detect proteins using labeled antibodies.

Localization of regulatory and gene sequences, comparison of homologous genes, and identification of mutations.

The treatment of inherited diseases by delivering a normal copy of a defective gene.

The conversion of inactive polypeptides into active proteins through proteolytic cutting.

It removes aged and damaged proteins from the cell through proteolytic degradation.

Through a process called transformation.

Thermal denaturation, where primers are heated to 95°C to denature dsDNA into single strands.

A DNA molecule that represents a small segment of DNA containing all signals necessary for replication.

Single stranded sequences of DNA or RNA that hybridize with complementary sequences of investigated DNA or RNA.

Normal prions with dominant α-helix structure can misfold into aberrant prions with β-pleated sheets, leading to neurodegeneration.

Cutting genomic DNA by restriction endonuclease into discrete fragments.

They bind to complementary coding regions on mRNA, forming RNA-DNA heteroduplexes that are cleaved by RNAse-H.

They prevent the addition of further dNTPs, terminating DNA chain synthesis.

Denaturation, annealing, and extension.

It can lead to the accumulation of aberrant proteins, contributing to diseases like Alzheimer’s and Parkinson’s.

A high throughput method used to determine the expression level of many genes or mutations simultaneously.

Restriction Fragment Length Polymorphism.

Sickle cell anemia.

The presence of variable number of tandem repeats (VNTR).

The target gene is inserted into a plasmid, which is then introduced into bacteria via transformation.

Huntington's disease.

Detection and visualization of proteins or other antigens in cells using antibodies.

Long-term control of glycemia (blood glucose concentration).

Aging is associated with the slow accumulation of oxidized proteins, mainly in the extracellular matrix.

DNA cutting enzymes used to cut fragments for the production of recombinant DNA.

For identification of DNA library clones containing the sequence of interest.

Covalent modifications that significantly impact the function of modified proteins.

Polymerase Chain Reaction; used for detecting DNA insertions, deletions, and gene amplification.

Severe immuno-deficiency syndrome.

They specifically recognize the target of interest and are linked to a reporter.

It leads to the formation of protein aggregates that induce neuronal death and consequent neurodegeneration.

It must be inserted into a specific vector for incorporation into the genomic DNA.

A method based on repetitive DNA synthesis using thermostable DNA polymerase and specific primers.

DNA ligase.

It is activated by cAMP and plays a role in signal transduction.

It uses labeled di-deoxy-nucleotides (ddNTPs) in addition to normal deoxynucleotides.

MicroRNA (miRNA) and small interfering RNA (siRNA).

To detect DNA or RNA sequences directly in tissue.

Autosomal recessive disease.