2 chem princ

In many of the decomposition reactions of digestion.

It acts as an excellent temperature buffer.

H+ and anions.

OH- and cations.

Negative and positive ions, neither of which is H+ or OH-.

The concentration of H+ in a solution.

pH 7.

pH buffers.

Carbon and hydrogen.

Up to four bonds.

Covalently bonded.

A chain of carbon atoms.

An adenosine unit and three phosphate groups.

Energy is released.

A chemical attraction between ions of opposite charge.

A bond where atoms share pairs of electrons.

A bond that exists when a hydrogen atom covalently bonded to one oxygen or nitrogen atom is attracted to another oxygen or nitrogen atom.

The sum of the atomic masses of all the atoms in a molecule.

The making or breaking of chemical bonds between atoms.

A reaction that requires more energy than it releases.

A reaction where atoms, ions, or molecules are combined to form a larger molecule.

A reaction where a larger molecule is broken down into its component molecules, ions, or atoms.

A reaction where two molecules are decomposed, and their subunits are used to synthesize two new molecules.

They are usually small, ionically bonded molecules.

Water.

To make chemical building blocks for growth and other essential functions of life.

They need to break down nutrient substances and use the energy released to assemble molecular fragments into new substances.

A fallen tree rotting on the forest floor and milk going sour in the refrigerator.

To understand the roles microorganisms play in nature, how they cause disease, and how methods for diagnosing disease are developed.

It makes a capsule that is not readily digested by animal cells.

A toxin that can harm the host and is being researched for detection in biological weapons.

Unique chemicals made by Bacillus anthracis to detect the manufacture or use of biological weapons.

To understand the changes that occur in microorganisms and the changes microbes make in the world around us.

The nurse should explain the importance of understanding biological molecules and how they affect blood sugar levels, possibly suggesting further reading or consultation with a healthcare provider.

An atom.

Electrons.

The nucleus.

Protons and neutrons.

Net positive charge.

They are equal, making the atom electrically neutral.

The number of protons in the nucleus.

Atoms with different numbers of neutrons in their nuclei but the same number of protons.

By the number of protons they contain.

Protons and neutrons are about 1840 times heavier than electrons.

The oxygen atom.

pH is calculated as -log10[H+].

Acidic solutions have more H+ than OH- and a pH lower than 7; basic solutions have more OH- than H+ and a pH above 7.

Monosaccharides.

Simple lipids are primarily made of glycerol and fatty acids, while complex lipids contain additional components such as phosphates or sugars.

Amino acids.

Nucleotides.

ATP serves as the primary energy currency of the cell, providing energy for various biochemical processes.

About 1-1.5%.

They can participate in up to four covalent bonds.

The chain of carbon atoms in an organic molecule.

Specific groups of atoms that are most commonly involved in chemical reactions and are responsible for the characteristic properties of organic compounds.

It is hydrophilic and helps dissolve organic molecules containing hydroxyl groups.

They have acidic properties because they are a source of hydrogen ions.

They function as bases because they readily accept hydrogen ions.

It helps stabilize the intricate structure of many proteins.

-OH.

Compounds that contain the -OH (hydroxyl) group.

The remainder of the molecule when characterizing a class of compounds by a certain functional group.

Large molecules formed by covalent bonding of many repeating small molecules called monomers.

A reaction where two monomers join together, releasing a molecule of water.

To fuel cell activities with a ready source of energy.

Always 2:1.

Sugars, specifically deoxyribose.

Because it is a polar molecule.

Hydrophobic interactions contribute to the tertiary structure of proteins by influencing how the polypeptide folds and maintains its shape.

Phagocytes cannot easily digest D-forms of amino acids, such as D-glutamic acid found in the capsules of B. anthracis, which can lead to infection.

Conjugated proteins are combinations of amino acids with other organic or inorganic components, named by their non-amino acid component.

Nucleotides are the structural units of nucleic acids.

A heterocyclic nitrogen-containing compound, a pentose sugar, and a phosphate group.

DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) and RNA (ribonucleic acid).

A DNA molecule consists of two long strands wrapped around each other to form a double helix.

They make up the rungs of the ladder in the DNA structure and are paired specifically (A with T, G with C).

The order contains the genetic instructions for the organism and determines hereditary traits.

A nucleoside refers to the combination of a purine or pyrimidine plus a pentose sugar, without a phosphate group.

A pairs with T and G pairs with C, held together by hydrogen bonds.

Adenine, Thymine, Cytosine, and Guanine.

A deoxyribose sugar molecule, a phosphate group, and a nitrogen-containing base.

They are useful in medical diagnosis, treatment of disorders, and sterilization methods.

Hydrogen, carbon, nitrogen, and oxygen.

6

12

4

6 valence electrons, 2 unfilled spaces, and can form 2 maximum bonds.

The atom is chemically stable or inert and does not tend to react with other atoms.

1

1

14C has 2 more neutrons than 12C, making it a radioactive isotope.

Both have an atomic number of 6.

Approximately 14.

An ionic bond is an attraction between ions of opposite charge that holds them together to form a stable molecule.

A covalent bond is a chemical bond formed by two atoms sharing one or more pairs of electrons.

The valence of an atom is the number of extra or missing electrons in its outermost electron shell.

Atoms achieve a full complement of electrons by combining to form molecules.

A molecule that contains at least two different kinds of atoms, such as H₂O (water).

It acquires an overall negative charge and becomes a negatively charged ion (anion).

It acquires an overall positive charge and becomes a positively charged ion (cation).

Weaker ionic bonds formed in aqueous solutions are important in biochemical reactions in microbes and other organisms.

Cations are positively charged ions formed when an atom loses electrons, while anions are negatively charged ions formed when an atom gains electrons.

To have its outermost shell filled with electrons.

It becomes a sodium ion (Na+).

It becomes a chloride ion (Cl-).

An ionic bond.

A bond formed by the sharing of electrons between atoms.

Methane (CH4).

They form covalent bonds rather than becoming ions.

A weak bond where a hydrogen atom of one molecule is attracted to an oxygen or nitrogen atom in another molecule.

They serve as bridges between different molecules or parts of the same molecule.

H2

H-C-H with H atoms bonded to the carbon atom.

A single covalent bond.

A bond formed when two atoms share electrons.

Hydrogen bonds are considerably weaker than covalent bonds, having only about 5% of their strength.

18 daltons (Da) or atomic mass units (amu).

Its molecular mass expressed in grams.

An ionic bond is formed by the transfer of electrons, while a covalent bond is formed by the sharing of electrons.

An attraction between ions of opposite charge that holds them together to form a stable molecule.

A bond formed by two atoms that share one or more pairs of electrons, and is the most common type of chemical bond in organisms.

A relatively weak bond where a hydrogen atom covalently bonded to one oxygen or nitrogen atom is attracted to another oxygen or nitrogen atom.

Pathways of synthesis reactions in living organisms, such as combining sugar molecules to form starch and amino acids to form proteins.

The reverse of a synthesis reaction, where bonds are broken and large molecules are split into smaller molecules, ions, or atoms.

Decomposition reactions that occur in living organisms, such as the breakdown of sucrose into glucose and fructose during digestion.

The initial energy needed to break a bond in a chemical reaction.

A chemical reaction that absorbs more energy than it releases, directing energy inward.

A chemical reaction that releases more energy than it absorbs, directing energy outward.

A reaction that is part synthesis and part decomposition, where reactants recombine to form new products.

Reactants combine to form products, expressed as A + B → AB.

Reactant breaks down into products, expressed as AB → A + B.

Chemical reactions involve the making or breaking of bonds, allowing cells to do work by releasing energy when new bonds are formed.

It means that the reaction can occur in either direction, although some reactions reverse more easily than others.

A reversible reaction is one where the end product can revert to the original molecules, indicated by two arrows.

Inorganic and organic compounds.

7, where the concentrations of H+ and OH- are equal.

Inorganic compounds are usually small, structurally simple molecules that typically lack carbon and may involve ionic bonds.

Organic compounds always contain carbon and hydrogen and are typically structurally complex.

Water is vital for growth, repair, maintenance, and reproduction, and it serves as a medium for most chemical reactions inside cells.

Water makes up 65-75% of every cell on average.

A polar molecule is one that has an unequal distribution of charges, such as water, which has a slightly negative charge on the oxygen region and a slightly positive charge on the hydrogen region.

Each water molecule can form four hydrogen bonds with nearby water molecules.

Ice is less dense than liquid water due to the crystalline structure formed by hydrogen bonds, which makes it take up more space.

Water's high boiling point allows it to exist in the liquid state on most of the Earth's surface, which is essential for life.

Sodium chloride dissociates into sodium ions (Na+) and chloride ions (Cl-) due to the polarity of water, which disrupts the ionic bonds between them.

Water molecules surround the sodium and chloride ions, with the oxygen atoms attracted to the sodium ion and the hydrogen atoms attracted to the chloride ion, facilitating the dissolution process.

An acid is a substance that dissociates into one or more hydrogen ions (H+) and one or more negative ions (anions).

A base dissociates into one or more negatively charged hydroxide ions (OH-) and one or more positive ions (cations).

Water acts as a reactant or product in many chemical reactions, facilitating the breakdown of larger molecules and the synthesis of organic compounds.

Maintaining a constant balance of acids and bases is crucial for enzyme function and overall cellular health, as deviations can disrupt biochemical processes.

The pH scale expresses the concentration of hydrogen ions (H+) in a solution, ranging from 0 to 14, where lower values indicate higher acidity and higher values indicate higher alkalinity.

Acids dissociate to release H+ ions, while bases dissociate to release OH- ions; salts dissociate into cations and anions that are neither H+ nor OH-.

Even small changes in pH can dramatically affect biochemical reactions, as they are sensitive to the concentrations of H+ and OH- ions.

By adding substances that increase the concentration of hydrogen ions, thus increasing its acidity.

They help keep the pH from changing drastically, maintaining a stable environment for biochemical reactions.

Between 6.5 and 8.5.

Fungi.

About 4, which is slightly acidic.

From 1 to 3.5.

The pH can become acidic enough to inhibit bacterial enzymes and kill the bacteria.

As pH values decrease from 14 to 0, the H+ concentration increases, indicating higher acidity.

A polymer is a large molecule made up of many repeating units called monomers, which are small molecules.

ATP is the cell's chief energy provider.

Carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen atoms.

(CH₂O)ₙ where n indicates that there are three or more CH₂O units.

Monosaccharides, disaccharides, and polysaccharides.

Simple sugars that contain three to seven carbon atoms.

Deoxyribose, which is found in DNA.

A common hexose and the main energy-supplying molecule of living cells.

When two monosaccharides bond in a dehydration synthesis reaction.

A disaccharide formed from glucose and fructose.

The chemical reaction that breaks down disaccharides into simpler molecules by adding water.

Carbohydrates consisting of tens or hundreds of monosaccharides joined through dehydration synthesis.

A polysaccharide composed of glucose subunits, synthesized as a storage material by animals and some bacteria.

A glucose polymer that is the main component of the cell walls of plants and most algae.

A polysaccharide that makes up part of the cell wall of most fungi and the exoskeletons of lobsters, crabs, and insects.

They are essential to the structure and function of membranes that separate living cells from their environment.

They are nonpolar molecules and are insoluble in water.

Amylopectin and amylose.

Amylopectin.

Amylose has less surface area for enzymes to react with, making it more resistant to digestion.

They produce short-chain fatty acids that are important for intestinal health and may protect against colorectal cancer.

Butyrate is a type of short-chain fatty acid linked to Prevotella metabolism, which may protect against colorectal cancer.

Mice with large numbers of Lachnospira bacteria were more likely to survive, while those dominated by Escherichia coli were more likely to die.

Fats.

An alcohol called glycerol bonded to three fatty acids.

To form plasma membranes that enclose cells.

The number of fatty acid molecules combined with glycerol.

Saturated fatty acids have no double bonds and contain the maximum number of hydrogen atoms, while unsaturated fatty acids have one or more double bonds.

One molecule of glycerol and three fatty acid molecules.

Saturated fatty acids are relatively straight and can pack closely together, while unsaturated fatty acids have kinks due to double bonds, preventing close packing.

An unsaturated fatty acid where the hydrogen atoms on either side of the double bond are on the same side of the chain.

An unsaturated fatty acid where the hydrogen atoms on either side of the double bond are on opposite sides of the chain.

Glycerol, two fatty acids, and a phosphate group bonded to an organic group.

They build membranes and are essential for a cell's survival.

The polar regions orient towards water, forming hydrogen bonds, while nonpolar regions interact with neighboring nonpolar molecules, creating a barrier for cell membranes.

They form a bilayer that separates the cell's contents from the water-based environment.

Waxes and glycolipids.

In the plasma membrane of cells.

Lipids.

Four interconnected carbon rings.

A steroid with an -OH group attached to one of the rings.

Ergosterol.

They are important constituents of the plasma membranes of animal cells and some bacteria, fungi, and plants.

The side group (R group) attached to the alpha-carbon.

Amino acids.

An amino group (-NH2), a carboxyl group (-COOH), and a side group (R) attached to a central carbon atom (C).

Alpha-amino acids.

Stereoisomers, designated by D and L.

L-amino acids.

They are essential for cell structure and function, including acting as enzymes, transporters, and structural components.

Enzymes speed up biochemical reactions, transporter proteins move chemicals, and some proteins have regulatory functions.

They affect the total structure and function of proteins.

Glycine, Serine, Aspartic acid, Phenylalanine, Alanine, Threonine, Lysine, Tyrosine, Valine, Cysteine, Arginine, Histidine, Leucine, Methionine, Asparagine, Tryptophan, Isoleucine, Glutamic acid, Glutamine, Proline.

Cysteine and Methionine.

The R group determines the characteristics and properties of each amino acid.

An additional amino (-NH2) group, making it basic.

An additional carboxyl (-COOH) group, making it acidic.

Proline is a heterocyclic amino acid.

Phenylalanine and Tyrosine have cyclic structures.

Methionine contains a thioether (SC) group.

Valine, Leucine, and Isoleucine are branched chain amino acids.

Tryptophan has a heterocyclic structure.

Environmental investigations uncovered B. anthracis at Jonathan's home, in his van, and in his workplace.

B. anthracis cells have capsules composed of poly-D-glutamic acid, which helps them evade phagocytosis.

Peptide bonds are the bonds formed between the carbon atom of the carboxyl group of one amino acid and the nitrogen atom of the amino group of another amino acid.

Dehydration synthesis is the process where one water molecule is released for every peptide bond formed between two amino acids.

The primary structure is the unique sequence in which the amino acids are linked together to form a polypeptide chain.

The secondary structure is the localized, repetitious twisting or folding of the polypeptide chain, resulting from hydrogen bonds.

Tertiary structure refers to the overall three-dimensional structure of a polypeptide chain, involving interactions between various amino acid side groups.

Amino acids are the building blocks of proteins, linked together by peptide bonds to form polypeptide chains.

The primary structure is the polypeptide strand, which is the amino acid sequence.

Hydrogen bonds between the amino acids stabilize the secondary structure, which includes helix and pleated sheet formations.

The tertiary structure is the overall three-dimensional folding of a polypeptide chain, which includes interactions like hydrophobic interactions and disulfide bridges.

Disulfide bridges are strong covalent bonds that help stabilize the protein structure by linking cysteine molecules together.

The quaternary structure consists of an aggregation of two or more individual polypeptide chains (subunits) that operate as a single functional unit.

Denaturation can occur due to hostile environments such as extreme temperature, pH, or salt concentrations, leading to the loss of its characteristic shape.

Examples include hemoglobin, microfilaments, microtubules, the virus coat, and DNA polymerase.

They are antiparallel, meaning one strand runs in the opposite direction to the other.

Alternating sugar and phosphate groups.

Adenine pairs with Thymine, and Guanine pairs with Cytosine.

It is essential for understanding genetics, recombinant DNA techniques, and the emergence of antibiotic resistance and new diseases.

Hydrogen bonds.

A double-helical, ladderlike form.

It provides structural support and stability to the DNA molecule.

DNA is double-stranded while RNA is usually single-stranded; RNA contains ribose sugar instead of deoxyribose, and RNA has uracil (U) instead of thymine.

Messenger RNA (mRNA), ribosomal RNA (rRNA), and transfer RNA (tRNA).

Adenosine triphosphate (ATP).

It releases usable energy, converting ATP into adenosine diphosphate (ADP) and inorganic phosphate.

By adding a phosphate group to ADP using energy supplied by the cell's oxidation reactions, particularly the oxidation of glucose.

ATP consists of an adenosine unit (adenine and ribose) with three phosphate groups attached.

ATP stores chemical energy released by reactions and provides energy for reactions that require energy, making it indispensable to cell survival.

Both ATP and RNA nucleotides contain ribose sugar and a nitrogenous base (adenine in ATP and uracil or other bases in RNA).

Deoxyribose.

Cytosine (C), guanine (G), adenine (A), and thymine (T).

Ribose.

Cytosine (C), guanine (G), adenine (A), and uracil (U).

Protein synthesis and determining all hereditary traits.

Protein synthesis, genetic code of some viruses, and gene deactivation.

The smallest unit of a chemical element that exhibits the properties of that element.

A nucleus containing protons and neutrons, and electrons that move around the nucleus.

The number of protons in the nucleus of an atom.

Atoms that have the same atomic number but different atomic masses.

The number of electrons in its outermost (valence) shell.

Two or more atoms; molecules with at least two different kinds of atoms are called compounds.

Attractive forces that bind two atoms together.

Most of the properties of organic molecules.

The remainder of an organic molecule.

R-OH (alcohols) and R-COOH (organic acids).

Very large molecules formed from small organic molecules.

By dehydration synthesis, forming water and a polymer.

A reaction involving the splitting of water molecules to break down organic molecules.

Atoms of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen, with hydrogen and oxygen in a 2:1 ratio.

From three to seven carbon atoms.

Two molecules with the same chemical formula but different structures and properties.

By dehydration synthesis.

Their insolubility in water.

A molecule of glycerol and three molecules of fatty acids.

Saturated lipids have no double bonds between carbon atoms; unsaturated lipids have one or more double bonds.

Glycerol, two fatty acids, and a phosphate group.

Four interconnected carbon ring structures.

The building blocks of proteins.

Carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, and sometimes sulfur.

Twenty amino acids.

Peptide bonds formed by dehydration synthesis.

Primary, secondary, tertiary, and quaternary.

Proteins combined with inorganic or other organic compounds.

Macromolecules consisting of repeating nucleotides.

A pentose, a phosphate group, and a nitrogen-containing base.

It consists of deoxyribose, a phosphate group, and one of the nitrogen-containing bases: thymine, cytosine, adenine, or guanine.

Two strands of nucleotides wound in a double helix held together by hydrogen bonds.

Sequences of nucleotides.

Ribose, a phosphate group, and one of the nitrogen-containing bases: cytosine, guanine, adenine, or uracil.

It stores chemical energy for various cellular activities.

The energy from oxidation reactions is used to regenerate ATP from ADP and inorganic phosphate.

A substance that cannot be broken down into simpler substances by chemical means.

Ionic bond.

Covalent bond.

Covalent bond.

Hydrogen bond.

Synthesis reaction.

Decomposition reaction.

Exchange reaction.

Decomposition reaction.

It catalyzes the reaction, speeding up the conversion of urea to ammonia and carbon dioxide.

Lipid.

Protein.

Carbohydrate.

Nucleic acid.

Amino acids.

Right to left.

Left to right.

Fungi.

In the carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, or water of E. coli bacteria.

In the DNA of the cells.

In carbohydrates.

10,000 times more acidic.

A molecule that supplies energy to do work.

C₁₈H₂₉SO₃ (Styrofoam).

A synthesis reaction.

It indicates that H₂CO₃ is an acid.

The relative amount of unsaturated lipids decreases.

They rely on symbiotic bacteria or enzymes that can break down cellulose.

PHB is a polymer and cells store it as an energy reserve.

By metabolizing pyrite and producing sulfuric acid, which reacts with lime to form gypsum.

Phenylalanine is an amino acid.

It indicates that the baby does not have PKU and can metabolize phenylalanine.

Because aspartame contains phenylalanine, which they cannot metabolize.

Amphotericin B is used against fungal infections, not bacterial infections, because it targets sterols in fungal membranes.

Cysteine and methionine, which contain sulfur.

To observe microorganisms that are too small to be seen with the unaided eye.

The Latin word 'micro' meaning small and the Greek word 'skopos' meaning to look at.

The resolving ability of microscopes improved, allowing for better observation of bacteria like Helicobacter pylori.

A spiral-shaped bacterium that lives in the human stomach and can cause ulcers.

To make their cell walls, capsules, and other structures visible, as they are often colorless in their natural state.

It helps identify certain bacteria, such as those causing tuberculosis, which are resistant to standard staining methods.

It suggests the presence of acid-fast bacteria, which may indicate an infection such as tuberculosis.

The metric system.