What bones form the structure of the nose?
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Maxilla and palatine bones.
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What bones form the structure of the nose?
Maxilla and palatine bones.
What is a spirometer?
An instrument that records the volume of air exchanged during breathing.
What is external respiration?
The exchange of gases in the lungs.
What activities can lead to forced expiration?
Heavy exercise, singing, blowing air into a trumpet, or blowing out birthday candles.
What does a spirogram display?
The measurements recorded by a spirometer.
Where does gas exchange occur during external respiration?
Between the alveolar air and the pulmonary capillary blood.
What happens to the pressure in the thoracic cavity during forced expiration?
It increases.
In which direction does oxygen diffuse during external respiration?
From the alveoli into the blood.
Which muscles contract to force the rib cage downward and inward during forced expiration?
Internal intercostal muscles.
What shape are the lungs?
Paired, cone-shaped organs.
What is the primary function of the respiratory system?
To facilitate gas exchange between the body and the environment.
What is external respiration?
The process of gas exchange between the atmosphere and the blood in the lungs.
How many lobes does the right lung have?
3 lobes.
Where is the concentration of carbon dioxide higher during external respiration?
In the blood.
What is the primary function of the larynx?
It serves as a cartilaginous passageway for air between the pharynx and trachea.
What are the main components of the respiratory system?
Nose, pharynx, larynx, trachea, bronchi, and lungs.
How do abdominal wall muscles contribute to forced expiration?
They push on the abdominal organs and compress upward against the diaphragm.
How do tears reach the nasal cavities?
Through the nasolacrimal canals.
What is the mucociliary escalator?
A defense mechanism in the trachea that helps clear mucus and trapped particles.
How many lobes does the left lung have?
2 lobes.
What encloses the lungs?
A double layer of serous membrane called the pleurae.
What percentage of oxygen is transported by hemoglobin in red blood cells?
97-98%.
What is internal respiration?
The exchange of gases between the blood and the body's tissues.
What shape does the larynx resemble?
A triangular box.
What is the primary function of the nose?
To facilitate breathing and sense of smell.
In which direction does carbon dioxide diffuse during external respiration?
From the blood in the pulmonary capillaries to the alveoli.
What role does the diaphragm play in breathing?
It contracts and relaxes to help draw air into and push air out of the lungs.
What is the major function of the respiratory system?
Gas exchange, allowing oxygen to enter the blood and carbon dioxide to exit into the air.
Why does the left lung have fewer lobes than the right lung?
To allow room for the heart.
What type of blood does the pulmonary artery carry?
Oxygen-poor blood.
What is the shape of the pharynx?
Funnel-shaped passageway.
What happens when a person cries?
It produces a runny nose.
How does the mucociliary escalator function?
Cilia on epithelial cells move mucus upwards towards the pharynx.
What is the term for hemoglobin combined with oxygen?
Oxyhemoglobin.
What is the function of the visceral pleura?
It adheres to the surface of the lung.
Which process involves oxygen entering the blood?
External respiration.
What type of epithelium is found in the nasal cavity for smell?
Olfactory epithelium.
Where is the Adam's apple located?
At the anterior neck.
What regulates voice pitch?
The tension on the vocal cords and the opening of the glottis.
What is the primary function of the respiratory membrane?
Facilitates rapid gas exchange.
What is the significance of the alveoli in the respiratory system?
They are the sites of gas exchange in the lungs.
What is the process of breathing in called?
Inspiration or inhalation.
Where do the lungs lie?
Within the sealed-off thoracic cavity.
What is gas transport in the context of respiration?
The process by which oxygen and carbon dioxide are carried in the blood between the lungs and tissues.
What is the primary function of the mechanism of breathing?
To facilitate the exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide in the body.
What are the smaller divisions of each lobe called?
Lobules.
What type of blood does the pulmonary vein carry?
Oxygen-rich blood.
What is the primary function of the respiratory system?
To facilitate gas exchange, primarily oxygen and carbon dioxide.
What is gas exchange?
The process of oxygen and carbon dioxide moving between the lungs and the bloodstream.
What is the only external portion of the respiratory system?
The Nose.
What does the pharynx connect?
The nasal and oral cavities to the larynx.
What are paranasal sinuses?
Air-filled spaces that reduce the weight of the skull and act as resonating chambers for the voice.
What role does mucus play in the trachea?
It traps dust, pathogens, and other particles to prevent them from entering the lungs.
What is the normal range of ventilations per minute for adults?
12 - 20 ventilations per minute.
What does the parietal pleura line?
The inside of the thoracic cavity.
What is released oxygen referred to as?
Deoxyhemoglobin.
Which process involves carbon dioxide being released from the blood?
Internal respiration.
How does tension on the vocal cords affect pitch?
Greater tension and a narrower glottis result in a higher pitch.
What structures are housed within the larynx?
The vocal cords.
What are paranasal sinuses?
Air-filled spaces surrounding the nasal cavity.
How does the respiratory system contribute to homeostasis?
By regulating the levels of oxygen and carbon dioxide in the blood.
How is air conducted toward the lungs during inhalation?
By a series of cavities, tubes, and openings.
What structures are found in each lobule?
A bronchiole and pulmonary arteries/arterioles/capillaries serving many alveoli.
What is internal respiration?
The exchange of gases in the tissues.
What two layers make up the respiratory membrane?
Alveolar epithelium and capillary endothelium.
What is expiration/exhalation in the context of ventilation?
Usually the passive phase of ventilation, requiring no muscular effort.
What happens to the lungs when the respiratory muscles expand the thorax?
The lungs passively expand.
What is pulmonary ventilation?
The entrance and exit of air into and out of the lungs.
What are the primary gases involved in gas transport?
Oxygen (O2) and carbon dioxide (CO2).
What are the two main phases of breathing?
Inhalation and exhalation.
What does the respiratory center respond to in terms of chemical input?
Levels of carbon dioxide and hydrogen ions.
What are the main structures involved in the respiratory system?
Nose, pharynx, larynx, trachea, bronchi, and lungs.
What color is used to represent oxygen-poor blood?
Blue.
How does air enter the respiratory system?
Through the nostrils.
What role do alveoli play in gas exchange?
Alveoli are the tiny air sacs in the lungs where gas exchange occurs.
What separates the nasal cavities from the oral cavity?
The palate.
What happens to the mucus after it is moved by the cilia?
It is either swallowed or expelled through coughing.
What are the three parts of the pharynx?
Nasopharynx, Oropharynx, Laryngopharynx.
What does the trachea connect?
The larynx to the primary bronchi.
Which part of the brain controls ventilation?
The medulla oblongata and pons.
What factors increase the amount of oxygen released by oxyhemoglobin?
Increased blood carbon dioxide, acidity, and temperature.
How does the respiratory system help regulate blood pH?
By altering the bicarbonate/carbonic acid buffer system through breathing.
What is the primary purpose of external respiration?
To supply oxygen to the blood and remove carbon dioxide.
What determines the loudness of a voice?
The amplitude of the vibrations of the vocal cords.
What supports the vocal cords in the larynx?
Elastic ligaments.
What is the process of breathing out called?
Expiration or exhalation.
Where does gas exchange occur during internal respiration?
Between the blood in systemic capillaries and the tissue fluid.
What happens to the diaphragm during expiration?
It relaxes and resumes its dome shape.
How thick is the respiratory membrane?
Extremely thin.
What creates intrapleural pressure?
The surface tension between the visceral and parietal pleura.
What is external respiration?
The exchange of gases between air and blood.
How is oxygen primarily transported in the blood?
Bound to hemoglobin in red blood cells.
What muscle primarily drives inhalation?
The diaphragm.
What happens to the respiratory rate and depth during exercise?
They increase due to rising levels of carbon dioxide and hydrogen ions.
What separates the two nasal cavities?
A septum made of bone and cartilage.
How does the diaphragm contribute to breathing?
It contracts and relaxes to change the volume of the thoracic cavity, facilitating inhalation and exhalation.
How is oxygen transported in the blood?
Oxygen is primarily transported bound to hemoglobin in red blood cells.
What is the primary function of the respiratory system?
To facilitate gas exchange and transport oxygen to the body.
Where is the trachea located in relation to the esophagus?
Anterior to the esophagus.
What nerve carries impulses to the diaphragm?
The phrenic nerve.
What color is used to represent oxygen-rich blood?
Red.
What role do tonsils play in the pharynx?
They contain lymphocytes that protect against inhaled pathogens.
What are the two portions of the palate?
The hard palate and the soft palate.
What percentage of oxygen is transported in the plasma?
2-3%.
What is tidal volume?
The volume of air exchanged during normal, relaxed breathing, about 500 mL.
What happens during hypoventilation?
Increased CO2 leads to decreased pH, resulting in acidosis (pH less than 7.35).
What percentage of carbon dioxide is transported as a dissolved gas in blood plasma and red blood cells?
10%.
What physical changes occur in the larynx during puberty?
The growth of the larynx and vocal cords is faster in males, leading to a more prominent Adam's apple and deeper voices.
What type of fluid do the pleurae produce?
A lubricating serous fluid.
How is sound produced in the larynx?
When air is expelled past the vocal cords through the glottis, causing them to vibrate.
How is air conducted away from the lungs during exhalation?
By a series of cavities, tubes, and openings.
What occurs to the external intercostal muscles during expiration?
They relax, causing the rib cage to move down and in.
What is internal respiration?
The exchange of gases between blood and tissue fluid.
What is the surface area of the respiratory membrane?
50 - 70 m².
What is the nature of intrapleural pressure compared to atmospheric pressure?
It is less than atmospheric pressure.
What percentage of carbon dioxide is transported as bicarbonate in the blood?
About 70%.
What happens to the thoracic cavity during inhalation?
It expands, decreasing pressure and allowing air to flow in.
What is the primary purpose of internal respiration?
To provide oxygen to tissues and remove carbon dioxide from them.
What is the primary function of the respiratory tract?
To cleanse, warm, and moisten the air from the nose to the lungs.
What role do alveoli play in the respiratory system?
They are the sites of gas exchange between air and blood.
Where are chemoreceptors located that monitor blood oxygen levels?
In the carotid arteries and aorta.
What is the primary gas exchanged in the lungs?
Oxygen is taken in, and carbon dioxide is expelled.
What lines the nasal cavities?
A mucous membrane.
What is the concentration of oxygen in the blood compared to the tissues?
Higher concentration in the blood.
What is the mechanism of breathing?
The process by which air is inhaled and exhaled from the lungs.
What is the maximum inspiratory effort?
The maximum expansion of the lungs.
What keeps the trachea open?
About twenty C-shaped cartilaginous rings.
What do the intercostal nerves stimulate?
The external intercostal muscles to contract.
What is the role of the pulmonary artery and arteriole?
To carry oxygen-poor blood to the lungs.
What influences the control of ventilation?
Nervous input and chemical input.
What is the function of the pharynx?
It serves as a passageway for both food and air.
Why is oxygen not very soluble in water?
Oxygen has low solubility in water.
What is vital capacity?
The maximum volume of air that can be inhaled plus the maximum volume of air that can be exhaled.
What happens to air during inhalation?
Air passes through the bronchial tree to the alveoli.
What is the chemical reaction associated with hypoventilation?
↑CO2 + H2O → ↑H2CO3 → ↑H+ + HCO3-.
How much carbon dioxide combines with the protein portion of hemoglobin?
30% (forming carbaminohemoglobin).
What does the trachea divide into?
The right and left primary bronchi.
What is the role of the lubricating serous fluid?
It creates surface tension between the pleural layers, allowing them to cling together.
What is the function of the epiglottis?
It prevents food from entering the larynx.
What is the active phase of ventilation called?
Inspiration/Inhalation (吸氣).
What happens to the volume of the thoracic cavity during expiration?
It decreases, leading to lung recoil.
What happens to red blood cells in the capillaries of the respiratory membrane?
They are pressed up against the narrow capillary wall with little plasma present.
What does the transport of gases involve?
Transporting gases to and from the lungs and the tissues.
What role does the plasma play in gas transport?
It carries dissolved gases, including a small amount of oxygen and carbon dioxide.
What role does intrapleural pressure play in the lungs?
It helps to keep the lungs inflated.
What are the chemoreceptors in the carotid arteries called?
Carotid bodies.
What factors affect the efficiency of gas exchange?
Surface area, concentration gradients, and the thickness of the alveolar membrane.
What is the significance of the pleurae in the lungs?
They provide a lubricated surface for lung expansion and contraction.
How is air cleansed in the respiratory tract?
By nasal hairs, cilia, and mucus.
What is the function of the nasal conchae?
To increase the surface area for moistening and warming inhaled air.
How does maximum inspiratory effort affect the thoracic cavity?
It helps increase the size of the thoracic cavity larger than normal.
What are the key processes involved in gas exchange?
The transfer of oxygen and carbon dioxide between the lungs and the bloodstream.
What happens to oxygen during cellular respiration?
Cells continually consume O2, causing it to diffuse from the blood into the tissue fluid.
What is the function of the mucociliary escalator?
Epithelial cilia sweep mucus produced by goblet cells.
What occurs during exhalation?
The diaphragm relaxes, the thoracic cavity decreases in volume, and air is expelled.
What is the role of the pulmonary vein and venule?
To carry oxygen-rich blood from the lungs.
What is the term for normal, quiet breathing?
Eupnea.
Which brain areas provide nervous input for ventilation control?
Cerebral cortex, limbic system, hypothalamus, and other brain centers.
What surrounds the alveolar sac?
Extensive pulmonary capillaries.
What volumes contribute to vital capacity?
Tidal volume, inspiratory reserve volume, and expiratory reserve volume.
How many secondary bronchi are there for the right lung?
Three, corresponding to its three lobes.
What occurs during hyperventilation?
Decreased CO2 leads to increased pH, resulting in alkalosis (pH greater than 7.45).
What is the primary method of carbon dioxide transport in the blood?
Most combines with water to form carbonic acid (60%).
How do the pleural layers help the lungs?
They hold the lungs open against the chest wall.
What happens to the diaphragm during inhalation?
It contracts and flattens.
What type of cartilage is the epiglottis made of?
Flat elastic cartilage.
What causes the lungs to recoil during expiration?
The elastic tissue in the lung walls and slight alveolar surface tension.
How does the structure of the respiratory membrane facilitate gas exchange?
By having a large surface area and being extremely thin.
Why are respiratory events necessary?
To provide oxygen for and remove carbon dioxide waste from cellular respiration to produce ATP.
What extends from the pharynx to the alveoli of the lungs?
A continuous column of air.
What role does lysozyme play in the respiratory tract?
It helps to kill bacteria in the mucus.
Where are odor receptors located in the nose?
In the olfactory epithelium.
How does the body regulate the rate of breathing?
Through the respiratory center in the brain, which responds to carbon dioxide levels.
What is the significance of partial pressure in gas transport?
Partial pressure gradients drive the diffusion of gases in and out of the blood.
What are the chemoreceptors in the aorta called?
Aortic bodies.
What is the result of maximum inspiratory effort?
It allows more air to be inspired.
What is the concentration of carbon dioxide in the tissue fluid compared to the blood?
Higher concentration in the tissue fluid.
What happens to respiration when only the medulla is functioning?
Respiration becomes short, irregular, and gasping.
How is oxygen transported in the body?
Primarily through hemoglobin in red blood cells.
What occurs between the air in the alveoli and the blood in the capillaries?
Gas exchange.
What effect does smoking have on the trachea?
It destroys the cilia of the mucociliary escalator.
What happens to respiration when a person is angry or frightened?
It increases, leading to hyperpnea (faster-than-normal respiration).
What is inspiratory reserve volume?
The volume of air that can be inhaled beyond the tidal volume, about 3,000 mL.
How many secondary bronchi are there for the left lung?
Two, allowing room for the heart.
What is the chemical reaction associated with hyperventilation?
↓CO2 + H2O → ↓H2CO3 → ↓H+ + HCO3-.
What is the chemical reaction for carbon dioxide combining with water?
CO2 + H2O → H2CO3.
What is the primary function of the nasal cavity (鼻腔)?
To filter, warm, and humidify the air we breathe.
Which muscles contract during inhalation?
External intercostal muscles (外肋間肌).
What happens to intrapulmonary pressure during expiration?
It increases as lung volume decreases.
What are respiratory volumes?
The different amounts of air that can be inhaled or exhaled during breathing.
What is the mucociliary escalator?
A mechanism where cilia in the trachea and airways beat upward to carry mucus and trapped contaminants into the pharynx.
What occurs when oxygen concentration decreases?
Chemoreceptors communicate with the respiratory center, increasing the rate and depth of breathing.
What is carbon dioxide in relation to cellular respiration?
An end product of cellular respiration.
Which muscles are involved in maximum inspiratory effort?
Accessory muscles of respiration, including the erector spinae, pectoralis minor, scalene, and sternocleidomastoid muscles.
What does the trachea allow for in relation to the esophagus?
Expansion of the esophagus.
What gases are exchanged in the alveoli?
Oxygen enters and carbon dioxide exits the bloodstream.
What is expiratory reserve volume?
The volume of air that can be forcibly exhaled after normal expiration, about 1,200 mL.
What occurs during the soundest stage of sleep regarding ventilation?
Ventilation decreases.
What do secondary bronchi divide into?
Tertiary bronchi.
Why can both acidosis and alkalosis be fatal?
Because they interfere with cell enzyme functions.
