Theory & Methods in Sociology

Understanding the meanings of those who produce sociological data is crucial as it helps to interpret the context and implications of the findings, ensuring that the research reflects the realities and perspectives of the subjects involved.

The gang leader offered Patrick a chance to spend time with his gang.

The Hawthorne plant is known for its field experiments that demonstrated how being watched can influence worker productivity.

The trend was increasing, not reducing as was expected.

The experimental group is exposed to a variable that the researcher believes may have a particular effect.

The control group is not exposed to the independent variable, and their conditions are kept constant to compare with the experimental group.

Lab experiments are controlled experiments conducted in an artificial environment.

A sociologist's theoretical perspective is usually the most important factor when choosing which method to use.

Inaccessibility of certain situations to the researcher may restrict what topic they are able to study.

If researchers fail to produce documents showing the impact of lower income on different ethnic groups, the research could be considered unethical.

These decisions are often made in secret and may be hidden from the public, making them difficult to obtain.

Close-ended questions are those that provide respondents with a limited set of options to choose from, typically requiring a simple 'yes' or 'no' answer or selecting from predefined choices.

Quick and cheap, suitable for gathering straightforward factual information, results are easily quantified, training interviewers is straightforward, response rates are higher, and hypotheses can be tested.

Funding bodies determine the topic to be investigated and may deny funding or provide limited resources, restricting topic choice.

Close-ended questions are commonly used in surveys to gather quantitative data that can be easily analyzed statistically.

Different methods require varying amounts of time and money, affecting the sociologist's choice. For example, large-scale surveys are costly and may require many staff, while small-scale projects may be cheaper but take longer to complete.

Participants may not be representative of the whole population, lack of validity due to researcher bias, close-ended questions may lack validity, potential misunderstanding of questions, and the risk of participants lying or exaggerating.

Triangulation involves using two or more sources or methods to obtain a more rounded picture by studying the same thing from more than one viewpoint.

Close-ended questions restrict responses to specific options, while open-ended questions allow respondents to answer in their own words, providing more detailed information.

Funding bodies may require results in a specific form, such as quantitative data for educational achievement, which necessitates the use of methods like questionnaires or structured interviews.

Interviewer can develop rapport, easier to check understanding, flexible for in-depth questioning, useful for unfamiliar subjects, and provides more opportunity for interviewee to speak.

An advantage of using close-ended questions is that they simplify data analysis, as responses can be easily quantified and compared.

The strengths of one method can counter the weaknesses of another, providing both reliable quantitative data and valid qualitative data.

Value consensus refers to the agreement among society’s members about what values are important, creating a shared culture that holds society together.

Informed consent refers to the right of research participants to refuse involvement and to be informed about all relevant aspects of the research before it begins.

Sociologists need different personal skills; for instance, participant observation requires good social skills and observation, while in-depth interviews require the ability to establish rapport with interviewees.

Yes, close-ended questions can lead to biased responses if the options provided do not cover the full range of possible answers or if they are leading.

No deception involved and the interviewee has consented.

Parsons explains social order as being achieved through a shared culture, where social order is maintained as long as members agree on norms and values.

Confidentiality is important to keep the identity of participants secret, helping to prevent possible negative effects on them and respecting their privacy.

The subject matter may dictate which methods are suitable; for example, a male sociologist may find it challenging to study an all-female group through participant observation, and written questionnaires may not work for those who cannot read or write.

Close-ended questions are most effective in quantitative research where the goal is to measure specific variables and analyze patterns.

Each interview is unique, making it hard to replicate and compare findings.

The two mechanisms are positive sanctions that reward conformity and negative sanctions that punish deviance, along with socialization that teaches individuals to meet the system's needs.

Natural science relies on empiricism and objectivity, aiming to search for natural laws and explanations for regular patterns.

Researchers need to be aware of the possible effects of their work on participants, including police intervention, harm to employment prospects, social exclusion, and psychological damage.

Liberal feminism believes that women can achieve gender equality through changes in socialization and policies, such as laws against sex discrimination in employment.

Unexpected research opportunities may arise that do not allow for the use of structured methods like questionnaires, which require more preparation time.

They believe that unstructured interviews produce valid data.

Better external validity due to taking place in normally occurring social settings.

Mayo concluded that the respondents were simply trying to please the researcher, as productivity increased regardless of the conditions.

Functionalism compares society to the human body, where society is the body and its institutions are the body parts, each fulfilling essential functions.

Governments may change the definitions and categories, which reduces reliability.

Positivism, as proposed by Comte, suggests that sociology should be based on the methodology of natural sciences to reveal invariable laws.

Liberal feminists argue that traditional gender roles prevent both men and women from leading fulfilling lives and that men and women are equally capable of performing roles in both spheres.

Special care should be taken with participants who are particularly vulnerable due to age, disability, or health, including obtaining consent from both the child and parent when studying children.

They are less likely to reproduce representative data due to small sample sizes.

A phenomenon where individuals modify their behavior in response to their awareness of being observed.

Access is likely to be more of a problem with lab experiments, as schools and workplaces might be reluctant to allow researchers in.

A criticism is that Parsons assumes all parts of society are indispensable and tightly integrated, overlooking that not everything performs a positive function.

Interpretivists see data as socially constructed.

Official statistics can be used to research suicide rates, providing quantitative data that helps verify theories.

Covert research can create serious ethical problems, such as deceiving participants to gain their trust or obtain information, making it impossible to gain informed consent.

Radical feminists identify patriarchy, or 'rule by fathers', as the key concept in their theory, viewing it as the primary form of inequality and conflict.

Lack of informed consent and potential harm to participants.

Many school documents are in a systematic format, allowing researchers to draw direct comparisons.

Issues of deception and lack of informed consent apply, as well as the potential for harm.

Marx describes his theory as 'scientific socialism', which later formed the basis of communism.

Some official statistics cover virtually every pupil in the country, making them highly representative.

Radical feminists criticize liberal feminism for being overly optimistic and for ignoring structures such as capitalism and patriarchy.

Interpretivists argue that sociology will never be a science because it develops qualitative data and focuses on meanings rather than objective facts.

Validity refers to a method that produces a true or genuine picture of what something is really like, allowing researchers to get close to the truth.

It is not possible to control variables as closely as in laboratory experiments.

Documents are open to interpretation, and differences between the researcher and pupils can affect the accuracy of interpretations.

Close-ended questions require respondents to choose from a limited range of possible answers selected by the researcher, such as yes/no/don't know.

Feminists argue that gender is a more fundamental source of inequality than class, challenging Marx's focus on class divisions.

Positivists often present official statistics as 'social facts'.

Popper believes sociology cannot be a science because it is not falsifiable; sociological theories cannot be definitively proved wrong.

Radical feminists propose separatism, which involves living apart from men to create a new culture of female independence free from patriarchy.

Many sociologists argue that qualitative methods like participant observation provide a more valid account of group membership than quantitative methods like questionnaires.

Experimenter bias that can influence the results of a study.

Documents can provide important insights into the meanings held by teachers and pupils.

Questionnaires are quick and cheap, and there is no need to train interviewers since respondents complete them themselves.

Gramsci's concept of counter-hegemony refers to the proletariat developing its own leadership to challenge the dominance of the bourgeoisie.

Interpretivists see them as social constructs, not true representations of reality.

Ethnomethodologists, like Atkinson, agree that official statistics are socially constructed, which supports the argument that sociology cannot be a science.

Liberal feminists, like Ann Oakley, distinguish between sex as biological differences and gender as culturally constructed differences between masculine and feminine roles.

Reliability, or replicability, refers to a method that, when repeated by another researcher, yields the same results.

Coercion uses the army, police, prisons, and courts of the capitalist state to force other classes to accept its rule.

Field experiments are conducted in natural settings and cannot replicate past conditions.

Documents are legally required of all schools and colleges, making them likely to be representative.

Questionnaires cannot yield valid data due to a lack of contact between the researcher and respondent, which may lead to issues like lying or forgetting.

Weber suggests that to understand another's perspective, one must put oneself in their shoes, emphasizing the importance of qualitative data.

Personal documents.

Consciousness-raising in radical feminism involves women sharing their experiences in women-only groups to recognize that they face similar problems, fostering solidarity.

Consent uses ideas and values to persuade subordinate classes that the ruling class's rule is legitimate.

Positivists believe that sociology can be a science and should be value-free, meaning personal bias and political opinions are irrelevant.

Individuals are complex and no one is exactly alike, making it difficult to control all variables.

Interpretivists believe that data should be qualitative and allow exploration of the meanings people attach to events.

Unstructured interviews are informal, allowing the interviewer to vary the questions, wording, and order.

Kuhn argues that there is no shared belief in sociology like in science, as there are many conflicting theories on each topic.

Personal diaries are one of the most authentic sources of information because they are written without the intention of being seen.

As long as society accepts ruling class hegemony, there will not be a revolution, even if economic conditions seem favorable.

Weber argues that if research is well designed and findings are not altered, personal opinions should not influence the research.

Humans have free will and can only be understood through the choices they freely make.

She studied friendships in two London comprehensive schools and argued that writing notes was an important part of girls' friendships.

The researcher observes the group without taking part.

Structured interviews are formal, with each interview conducted in the same way using the same questions, wording, and tone of voice.

Quantitative methods like written questionnaires tend to produce more reliable results than qualitative methods like unstructured interviews.

A large amount of information about education is made publicly available because most education is run by the state.

Interpretivists argue that value neutrality is impossible, as personal and political beliefs inevitably influence research.

The ruling class is a minority and needs to make alliances with the middle classes; the proletariat has a dual consciousness influenced by both bourgeois ideology and their material conditions.

It reduces representativeness and may not accurately reflect the larger population.

Accidental mistakes can be made, which will reduce the reliability of the findings.

The researcher takes part in the life of the group while observing it.

Representativeness refers to whether the people studied are a typical cross-section of the group of interest.

Secondary data can show trends and patterns over time, provide statistics, offer personal documents for a more valid picture of someone's life, and include rich oral histories.

The researcher may need to seek informed consent from those involved.

The Black Report demonstrated that health inequalities persisted despite overall health improvements, primarily due to economic inequality.

The economic level, the political level, and the ideological level.

They allow for reliable results and the ability to replicate findings easily.

They are often less representative because they are collected in an unsystematic way.

The researcher reveals their true identity and purpose to those being studied and asks their permission to observe.

If the sample is representative of the wider population, findings can be used to make generalizations about all members of that population.

Disadvantages include that it may not be exactly what you need, cannot check validity, may have self-serving bias or be edited, memories may be distorted, and different tools can yield different results.

Sociologists may avoid negative findings or seek to be liked, which can lead to biased or watered-down research outcomes.

The repressive state apparatuses (RSAs) and the ideological state apparatuses (ISAs).

Positivists reject the use of documents as they lack reliability and representativeness.

The researcher conceals their true identity and purpose, usually posing as a genuine member of the group.

Positivists prefer quantitative data, seek to discover patterns of behavior, and view sociology as a science.

Hard statistics are simple counts that register events such as births and deaths and are not easily manipulated.

ISAs, such as the media and education system, manipulate the working class into accepting capitalism as legitimate.

A representative sample is a mixture of ages, genders, and people from different areas that reflects the views of the target population.

High validity – rich qualitative data.

Reflexivity involves researchers including information about themselves to acknowledge their potential biases and influences.

Interpretivists prefer qualitative data and seek to understand social actors' meanings, rejecting the idea that sociology can model itself on natural sciences.

Soft statistics are more easily manipulated, such as crime statistics.

Adorno describes the capitalist economy as 'totalitarian,' largely due to the lack of competition under monopoly conditions.

The target population is the entire group a researcher is interested in studying.

Researcher may be turned down.

Lyotard suggests that the idea of a value-free process is actually based on a set of values, and there are no universal truths, only multiple truths.

Ethical and practical factors such as time, resources, access, consent, and privacy usually limit the choice of research methods.

Positivists use official statistics because it is a scientific approach that obtains quantitative data, allowing them to produce generalizations and cause-and-effect statements.

The media dominates society, generates false needs, and shapes personalities, leading to self-absorption.

High validity and rich qualitative data.

Generalisability refers to the ability to use findings from a sample to make general assumptions about different groups.

Sheer chance may determine the method used, as illustrated by a postgraduate sociology student who conducted a participant observation study while hospitalized.

Official statistics are easily accessible, save sociologists time and money, and allow for comparisons between different social classes, ethnic groups, or genders.

Random sampling is a method where everyone in the population has the same chance of being chosen, such as picking names out of a hat.

A sociologist's theoretical perspective significantly influences their choice of research topic, such as a New Right researcher studying welfare benefits or a feminist researcher studying domestic violence.

Information required by sociologists is not always available, such as data on class backgrounds or the ethnicity of pupils and their achievement.

Advantages include equal chance of selection, better mix of people, reduced bias, increased representativeness, and enhanced generalisability.

Sociologists are influenced by the values of the society they study, leading to shifts in research focus as societal values change.

There are no real ethical issues since they are publicly available, and using them is unlikely to cause harm.

Deception of the participants.

Disadvantages include potential flaws in the sampling frame, lack of control over selection, and the risk of an unrepresentative sample.

Official statistics can be replicated from year to year, providing consistent data for analysis.

Gives insight into other people’s lives by allowing us to put ourselves in their place.

Self-selected sampling occurs when individuals offer to be part of the sample, often leading to biased results.

Time consuming.

Advantages include ease of implementation and motivated participants who are likely to answer honestly.

Higher level of involvement with the group gives us a deep subjective understanding.

Disadvantages include biased results, lack of representativeness, and limited generalisability.

The group studied is usually very small and so may be unrepresentative of the wider population.

Stratified sampling involves classifying the population into groups and then choosing a sample that reflects the proportions of these groups.

Advantages include being representative of the target population and the ability to generalise findings.

Disadvantages include being time-consuming and requiring detailed knowledge of the target population.

Systematic sampling provides structure and equal distribution, avoiding clustering of similar individuals.

Snowball sampling is a method where existing participants recruit new participants, leading to a larger sample size.

Advantages include being respondent-driven, easy to obtain, and useful for accessing hidden populations.

Disadvantages include potential bias and the inability to make generalisations.

Secondary data refers to second-hand data such as official statistics and existing research findings.