What is synaptogenesis?
Click to see answer
The formation of new synapses in the CNS.
Click to see question
What is synaptogenesis?
The formation of new synapses in the CNS.
What is the primary focus of Chapter 2 in 'Cognitive Neuroscience'?
The organization and functions of the nervous system.
What happens during synapse elimination?
Unused neural circuits are eliminated in a newborn.
What is the focus of the section titled 'Brain Development'?
The processes and stages involved in the development of the brain.
Why are many neural circuits eliminated in newborns?
Because they are redundant and unused.
What is the primary structure responsible for interhemispheric connections in the brain?
Corpus Callosum.
What type of glial cells are responsible for myelination in the Central Nervous System (CNS)?
Oligodendrocytes.
What surgical procedure is performed on split-brain patients?
Callosotomy.
What type of glial cells are responsible for myelination in the Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)?
Schwann cells.
What series of changes does the embryo undergo during prenatal development?
The embryo goes through a series of folds, or flexures.
What are the two additional structures involved in interhemispheric communication?
Anterior and posterior commissures.
What type of synapse is formed by gap junctions?
Electrical synapse.
What are Brodmann's Areas?
Regions of the cortex demarcated by histological examination of cellular microanatomy.
What is neural integration?
The process of combining multiple signals to generate action potentials.
What do the alterations in the gross structure of the nervous system lead to?
They give rise to the organization of the adult brain and brainstem.
What do gap junctions connect in electrical synapses?
The cytoplasms of two neurons.
What is spatial summation?
The integration of two or more EPSPs, two or more IPSPs, or both.
What are topographic 'maps' in the cortex?
Representations of the body in the motor and somatosensory cortex.
How many areas did Brodmann divide the cortex into?
About 52 areas.
Which part of the brain overlies the diencephalon and midbrain in adults?
The cerebral cortex.
What is the primary advantage of electrical synapses?
Very fast conduction.
What is temporal summation?
The integration of two or more EPSPs or two or more IPSPs over time.
What are the primary functions of the cerebellum?
Maintenance of balance and posture, timing of motor movements, coordination of voluntary movements, learning sequential information, and cognitive functions.
What does the homunculus represent?
The correspondence between cortical regions and body surface for somatosensory and motor processes.
What is the primary function of the limbic system?
Regulating emotions and memory.
What happens when a neuron fires?
It releases neurotransmitters from its buttons into the synaptic cleft.
What is an Action Potential (AP)?
A large, rapid reversal of the membrane potential, also known as 'neuronal firing', changing to +50 mV.
What are the two main types of cells in the neural system?
Glia cells and neurons.
How does the location of postsynaptic potentials affect their impact?
Potentials closer to the axon trigger zone have a bigger impact.
In which type of neuronal activity are electrical synapses particularly useful?
Reflexes and synchronized group activity of neurosecretory neurons.
What are the two types of homunculus mentioned?
Motor and Somatosensory homunculus.
What role do the vermis and intermediate zone of the cerebellum play?
They integrate sensory and motor information to coordinate voluntary movements.
Which structures are commonly associated with the limbic system?
Amygdala, hippocampus, and hypothalamus.
What do neurotransmitters do after being released?
They bind with receptors of the next neuron.
What is the primary function of neurons?
To transmit information throughout the nervous system.
Where does the Action Potential begin?
At the Axon Initial Segment, close to the Axon Hillock.
Which part of the brain is mentioned as having neurosecretory neurons that utilize electrical synapses?
The Hypothalamus.
What is the function of the lateral hemisphere of the cerebellum?
Responsible for planning and timing of movements.
What are teratogens?
Substances or stimuli that are harmful to the fetus in utero.
How does the limbic system influence behavior?
By processing emotions and forming memories that affect decision-making.
What can post-synaptic potentials do?
They can sum up.
What role do glial cells play in the neural system?
They support and protect neurons.
What is the threshold of excitation for many neurons?
-65 mV.
What is the primary function of the limbic system?
Emotion processing.
What substances can act as teratogens?
Drugs, alcohol, smoking, environmental toxins, viruses, radiation, and lead.
What type of cells are found in the cerebellum that play a crucial role in its function?
Purkinje Cells.
What is the first factor that influences the distribution of Na+ and K+ ions across the neural membrane?
Electrostatic pressure, where opposite charges attract.
What is the first phase of prenatal neural development?
Induction of the 'Neural Plate'.
Can new neurons be formed in the adult brain?
Yes, new neurons can be formed in the adult brain.
What areas does the frontal lobe contain?
Motor and higher-order association areas.
What part of the brain is the thalamus located in?
The diencephalon of the forebrain.
What is the primary function of the thalamus?
To act as a relay station for sensory information.
What role does the amygdala play in the limbic system?
It is involved in processing emotions, particularly fear and pleasure.
What forms after egg fertilization at about 21 days?
The multicellular blastula.
What occurs if the threshold is reached in a neuron?
An Action Potential occurs.
When is exposure to teratogens particularly harmful?
During the first trimester of pregnancy.
What does 'all-or-none' mean in the context of Action Potentials?
It means that once the threshold is reached, the Action Potential will occur fully or not at all.
Which part of the brain is primarily involved in emotion regulation?
The limbic system.
How does electrostatic pressure affect Na+ and K+ ions?
Na+ and K+ are attracted toward the negative charge inside the cell.
What are the main components of the cerebral cortex?
Superior, middle, and inferior gyri.
What are the main systems in the brain responsible for processing sensory information?
The sensory systems, including visual, auditory, and somatosensory systems.
What occurs during the second phase of prenatal neural development?
Neural Proliferation.
What type of research primarily informs our understanding of critical periods in neurodevelopment?
Mostly animal research on the development of sensory and motor systems.
What is the primary source of evidence for neurogenesis in the adult brain?
Most evidence comes from animal research.
What are the four main brain lobes?
Frontal, Parietal, Occipital, Temporal.
What is the myelencephalon part of the hindbrain?
It includes the medulla, which contains major ascending and descending tracts and small nuclei.
What are the main functions of the Prefrontal Cortex (PFC)?
Executive functions, behavior control, memory, planning, reasoning, decision making, language, and other cognitive processes.
What is the first step in neurotransmitter action?
Synthesis.
What is the primary function of the thalamus?
To act as a sensory relay for vision and hearing.
What are neurotransmitters?
Chemical messengers that transmit signals across synapses between neurons.
What are postsynaptic potentials?
Changes in membrane polarization produced by presynaptic neurons releasing neurotransmitters.
Where is the thalamus located?
In the brain, above the brainstem.
What is the significance of the hippocampus in the limbic system?
It is crucial for the formation of new memories.
What types of emotions does the limbic system help process?
Basic emotions such as fear, pleasure, and anger.
What is a stroke?
A cerebrovascular disorder of sudden onset.
What are the three layers formed in the blastula?
Ectoderm, Mesoderm, and Endoderm.
What is the second factor influencing ion distribution across the neural membrane?
Concentration gradient, which is the natural movement from high to low concentration.
Where is the visual cortex located?
In the occipital lobe.
What are some physical characteristics of Fetal Alcohol Syndrome (FAS)?
Small head size, small eyes, thin upper lip, and malformation of the cerebellum, basal ganglia, and corpus callosum.
Which brain system is primarily involved in regulating emotions?
The limbic system.
What is the primary function of the cell membrane?
It separates the interior from the exterior of the cell.
What was the effect of sensory deprivation on rats raised in the dark?
Fewer synapses and dendritic spines, leading to deficits in depth and pattern perception.
What is the role of the Dorsolateral Prefrontal Cortex (DLPFC)?
Involved in executive functions and cognitive processes.
In which part of the brain has neuronal regeneration been observed in adult rats?
In the hippocampus, specifically the dentate gyrus.
What type of connections does the thalamus have with the cortex?
Reciprocal connections.
How much does brain volume increase from birth to adulthood?
4 times.
What happens to neurotransmitters after synthesis?
They are stored in vesicles.
What is the function of the pre-central gyrus?
It is associated with the motor 'homunculus'.
What is the major function of serotonin?
Regulates mood, appetite, and sleep.
What functions does the medulla relay?
Sensory and motor information between the brain and body, including sleep, attention, muscle tone, cardiac function, and respiration.
Which types of sensory information does the thalamus process?
Visual, auditory, tactile, and gustatory information.
What is the third phase of prenatal neural development?
Migration and Aggregation.
What are the grooves on the surface of the cerebral cortex called?
Fissures and sulci.
What is an Excitatory Postsynaptic Potential (EPSP)?
Depolarization of the inside of the neuron, making it less negative (e.g., from -70 to -60 mV).
How does the limbic system influence behavior?
By regulating emotional responses.
What is the role of sodium-potassium pumps in ion distribution?
They actively move 3 Na+ ions out for every 2 K+ ions moved in.
What does the Ectoderm develop into?
The nervous system, skin, eye, and inner ear.
What virus is associated with COVID-19 and has been found to infect the CNS?
SARS-CoV-2.
What is an infarct?
An area of dead or dying tissue.
What are postsynaptic potentials?
Changes in the membrane potential of a postsynaptic neuron.
What is the structure of the cell membrane?
A lipid bilayer with signal proteins and channel proteins embedded in it.
What are the effects of enriched environments on brain development?
Thicker cortex, more synapses, and dendritic spines.
What system in the brain is crucial for motor control?
The motor system, including the motor cortex and basal ganglia.
Which structure in mammals is associated with neurogenesis?
The olfactory bulb.
What is one of the key functions of the hypothalamus?
Endocrine function.
What developmental issues are associated with Fetal Alcohol Syndrome (FAS)?
Slow development, poor coordination, impulsivity, and cognitive deficits.
What is the function of the Ventrolateral Prefrontal Cortex (VLPFC)?
Involved in language and decision-making processes.
What is Brodmann Area 17 known as?
Primary visual cortex (V1) or Striate cortex.
What is synaptogenesis?
The formation of synapses, which varies by cortical area.
What is done to neurotransmitters that leak from vesicles?
They are broken down.
Which neurotransmitter is primarily associated with the reward system?
Dopamine.
How does the thalamus contribute to consciousness?
By regulating the flow of information to the cerebral cortex.
What effect do EPSPs have on neuron firing?
They increase the likelihood of neuron firing and starting an action potential.
What type of mechanism do sodium-potassium pumps represent?
An active mechanism.
What does Part I of the outline cover?
The CNS and Brain cells, Principles of Neuroanatomy, and Brain Systems.
What happens in the fourth phase of prenatal neural development?
Axon Growth and Synapse Formation.
What behaviors are regulated by the hypothalamus?
Motivated behaviors.
What does the post-central gyrus represent?
It is associated with the somatosensory 'homunculus'.
What does the Mesoderm give rise to?
The skeleton and muscle.
What happens when a neurotransmitter binds to postsynaptic membrane receptors?
It changes the membrane potential.
What is the function of gyri in the cerebral cortex?
They increase the surface area for neural connections.
What is the 'critical period for language' in humans?
A biological window for language acquisition.
What percentage of strokes are ischemic?
Approximately 85%.
What is depolarization in the context of postsynaptic potentials?
A decrease in the membrane potential, making it more positive.
Which brain system is responsible for higher cognitive functions?
The prefrontal cortex.
What did Eriksson et al. (1998) study in humans?
Neurogenesis in the dentate gyrus of the hippocampus and the sub-ventricular caudate.
What does membrane potential refer to?
The difference in electrical charge between the inside and the outside of the neuron.
What is the role of the reticular formation?
It acts as an arousal system, specifically the reticular activating system.
What is the process of releasing neurotransmitters into the synaptic cleft called?
Exocytosis.
What did Huber and colleagues detect in post-mortem brain tissue of COVID-19 patients?
SARS-CoV-2 RNA.
What disorder is commonly associated with low levels of norepinephrine?
Depression.
At what age does synaptogenesis peak in the visual cortex?
At 4 months.
What arteries supply blood to the lateral aspect of the cortex?
Anterior, middle, and posterior cerebral arteries.
What is the Medial PFC also known as?
Anterior Cingulate Cortex.
Where does the primary visual cortex (V1) extend?
From the occipital pole onto the medial surface of the hemisphere.
What are the types of neurons based on the number of projections from the cell body?
Unipolar, bipolar, multipolar, and interneurons.
What is an Inhibitory Postsynaptic Potential (IPSP)?
Hyperpolarization of the inside of the neuron, making it more negative (e.g., from -70 to -75 mV).
What structure is associated with the limbic system in the forebrain?
Mammillary bodies.
What role does the thalamus play in motor control?
It helps coordinate voluntary movements by relaying information from the cerebellum and basal ganglia.
What is formed from the Ectoderm during development?
The neural plate, which becomes the neural tube.
What is the final phase of prenatal neural development?
Neuronal Death and Synapse Rearrangement.
What topics are included in Part II of the outline?
Brain Development, Action Potentials, Synapses, and Neurotransmitters.
What is hyperpolarization?
An increase in the membrane potential, making it more negative.
What are the two types of channels involved in the action potential?
Voltage-activated sodium and potassium channels.
What was the outcome for Genie, who was rescued at age 13?
She learned to pronounce only a few words and basic forms of non-verbal social communication.
What system in the brain is involved in the regulation of autonomic functions?
The autonomic nervous system, which includes the sympathetic and parasympathetic systems.
Where is the primary auditory cortex located?
Within Heschl’s gyrus, buried within the lateral sulcus.
Name one of the major fissures in the brain.
Longitudinal Fissure, Central Fissure, or Lateral Fissure.
What role do autoreceptors play in neurotransmitter action?
They provide inhibitory feedback.
What is the resting membrane potential value?
-70 millivolts.
What color are mouse neurons in the hippocampus as shown in Gage's research?
Green.
What is the optic chiasm primarily associated with?
Vision.
When does synaptogenesis peak in the prefrontal cortex?
At year 2.
What is the role of glutamate in the brain?
Acts as the main excitatory neurotransmitter.
What effect do IPSPs have on neuron firing?
They decrease the likelihood of neuron firing and starting an action potential.
What structures are derived from the neural tube?
Ventricles and cerebral cortex.
What are the two types of postsynaptic potentials?
Excitatory (EPSPs) and inhibitory (IPSPs).
What does 'graded' mean in relation to postsynaptic potentials?
Their amplitude is proportional to the intensity of the input; stronger stimuli produce bigger EPSPs and IPSPs.
Which arteries contribute to the circle of Willis?
Right and left internal carotid arteries.
What imaging technique is used to assess ischemic strokes?
MRI.
What is the Brodmann area number for the primary auditory cortex?
BA 41.
What does a resting membrane potential of -70 millivolts indicate?
The inside of the cell is 70 millivolts less than the outside, making the inside more negative and the outside more positive.
Which type of neuron is the most common?
Multipolar neurons.
What anatomical feature largely buries the primary visual cortex?
The calcarine fissure.
What is the sixth step in neurotransmitter action?
Activation of postsynaptic receptors.
What is the threshold potential for initiating an action potential?
-55 to -65 mV.
What are the two main types of brain cells?
Neurons and glial cells.
What is Fetal Alcohol Syndrome (FAS)?
A condition resulting from alcohol exposure during pregnancy, leading to developmental issues.
Which neurotransmitter is involved in muscle movement?
Acetylcholine.
In addition to which system does SARS-CoV-2 infect the central nervous system?
The respiratory system.
When do sensory and motor areas become myelinated?
In the first few months after birth.
What is the orientation of the Axial section?
Superior to inferior.
What is suggested for the lecture notes in Part II?
To review on your own.
What is the primary function of Glutamate?
It is an excitatory neurotransmitter and the most common one, released by pyramidal cells.
What do the primary auditory cortex and surrounding association areas represent?
Auditory stimuli.
How are postsynaptic potentials transmitted?
Decrementally, meaning they get weaker as they spread from their site of generation.
What equipment is needed to record a membrane potential?
An intracellular microelectrode and an extracellular microelectrode.
What effect do excitatory postsynaptic potentials (EPSPs) have on the membrane?
They depolarize the membrane.
How are neurotransmitters deactivated?
Through re-uptake or enzymatic degradation.
What disorder is linked to a deficiency in acetylcholine?
Alzheimer's disease.
Until what age does the prefrontal cortex continue to myelinate?
Until late adolescence.
What is the metencephalon part of?
The hindbrain.
What can excessive Glutamate lead to?
Cell death, stroke, epilepsy, and neurodegenerative diseases.
What does neuroanatomy study?
The structure and organization of the nervous system.
What is the function of the circle of Willis?
It encircles the base of the brain and supplies arterial blood.
What are the two main organizational structures of neurons in the Central Nervous System (CNS)?
Nuclei and cortical layers.
What characterizes unipolar neurons?
They have one projection emanating from the cell body.
What is the speed of transmission for postsynaptic potentials?
They are transmitted rapidly, traveling about 2 millimeters instantaneously.
What is Heschl’s sulcus abbreviated as?
HS.
What is the peak potential of an action potential?
+50 mV.
What type of evidence has emerged regarding SARS-CoV-2 and the CNS?
Emerging evidences have revealed that it can infect the CNS.
What direction does the Sagittal section represent?
Left to right.
What is a millivolt?
One thousandth of a volt.
What does 'HC' stand for in the context of FAS?
Healthy Control.
What produces cerebrospinal fluid (CSF)?
Choroid plexuses, which are capillary networks in the ventricles.
What is gray matter primarily composed of?
Neuron cell bodies, dendrites, and unmyelinated axons.
What is the primary function of GABA?
Acts as the main inhibitory neurotransmitter.
What is dendritic branching?
The process by which neurons form new dendrites.
What important structure does the pons contain?
The reticular formation.
What is the Blood-Brain Barrier?
A highly selective semipermeable border that separates circulating blood from the brain and extracellular fluid in the central nervous system.
