What type of synapse is formed by gap junctions?
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Electrical synapse.
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What type of synapse is formed by gap junctions?
Electrical synapse.
What happens in the fourth phase of prenatal neural development?
Axon Growth and Synapse Formation.
What surgical procedure is performed on split-brain patients?
Callosotomy.
How many areas did Brodmann divide the cortex into?
About 52 areas.
What is the primary structure responsible for interhemispheric connections in the brain?
Corpus Callosum.
In which type of neuronal activity are electrical synapses particularly useful?
Reflexes and synchronized group activity of neurosecretory neurons.
What is the first factor that influences the distribution of Na+ and K+ ions across the neural membrane?
Electrostatic pressure, where opposite charges attract.
Which part of the brain is primarily involved in emotion regulation?
The limbic system.
What is the primary function of the thalamus?
To act as a sensory relay for vision and hearing.
Which brain system is primarily involved in regulating emotions?
The limbic system.
What is the structure of the cell membrane?
A lipid bilayer with signal proteins and channel proteins embedded in it.
Which neurotransmitter is primarily associated with the reward system?
Dopamine.
What did Huber and colleagues detect in post-mortem brain tissue of COVID-19 patients?
SARS-CoV-2 RNA.
What structures are derived from the neural tube?
Ventricles and cerebral cortex.
What type of glial cells are responsible for myelination in the Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)?
Schwann cells.
Which part of the brain overlies the diencephalon and midbrain in adults?
The cerebral cortex.
Which structures are commonly associated with the limbic system?
Amygdala, hippocampus, and hypothalamus.
What are the main components of the cerebral cortex?
Superior, middle, and inferior gyri.
What was the effect of sensory deprivation on rats raised in the dark?
Fewer synapses and dendritic spines, leading to deficits in depth and pattern perception.
What are postsynaptic potentials?
Changes in the membrane potential of a postsynaptic neuron.
What is done to neurotransmitters that leak from vesicles?
They are broken down.
What does the Mesoderm give rise to?
The skeleton and muscle.
What are the two main types of brain cells?
Neurons and glial cells.
Why are many neural circuits eliminated in newborns?
Because they are redundant and unused.
What are topographic 'maps' in the cortex?
Representations of the body in the motor and somatosensory cortex.
How does the location of postsynaptic potentials affect their impact?
Potentials closer to the axon trigger zone have a bigger impact.
What type of cells are found in the cerebellum that play a crucial role in its function?
Purkinje Cells.
What does 'all-or-none' mean in the context of Action Potentials?
It means that once the threshold is reached, the Action Potential will occur fully or not at all.
What are the main functions of the Prefrontal Cortex (PFC)?
Executive functions, behavior control, memory, planning, reasoning, decision making, language, and other cognitive processes.
Where is the visual cortex located?
In the occipital lobe.
How much does brain volume increase from birth to adulthood?
4 times.
What does the Ectoderm develop into?
The nervous system, skin, eye, and inner ear.
What is the orientation of the Axial section?
Superior to inferior.
What type of glial cells are responsible for myelination in the Central Nervous System (CNS)?
Oligodendrocytes.
What are the two types of homunculus mentioned?
Motor and Somatosensory homunculus.
What is the first phase of prenatal neural development?
Induction of the 'Neural Plate'.
How does electrostatic pressure affect Na+ and K+ ions?
Na+ and K+ are attracted toward the negative charge inside the cell.
What are neurotransmitters?
Chemical messengers that transmit signals across synapses between neurons.
What are some physical characteristics of Fetal Alcohol Syndrome (FAS)?
Small head size, small eyes, thin upper lip, and malformation of the cerebellum, basal ganglia, and corpus callosum.
What is the function of the pre-central gyrus?
It is associated with the motor 'homunculus'.
What does the post-central gyrus represent?
It is associated with the somatosensory 'homunculus'.
What is the role of the reticular formation?
It acts as an arousal system, specifically the reticular activating system.
What color are mouse neurons in the hippocampus as shown in Gage's research?
Green.
What does a resting membrane potential of -70 millivolts indicate?
The inside of the cell is 70 millivolts less than the outside, making the inside more negative and the outside more positive.
What are the two additional structures involved in interhemispheric communication?
Anterior and posterior commissures.
What is temporal summation?
The integration of two or more EPSPs or two or more IPSPs over time.
Where does the Action Potential begin?
At the Axon Initial Segment, close to the Axon Hillock.
What can post-synaptic potentials do?
They can sum up.
What areas does the frontal lobe contain?
Motor and higher-order association areas.
What occurs during the second phase of prenatal neural development?
Neural Proliferation.
What is the significance of the hippocampus in the limbic system?
It is crucial for the formation of new memories.
What is the role of the Dorsolateral Prefrontal Cortex (DLPFC)?
Involved in executive functions and cognitive processes.
Which types of sensory information does the thalamus process?
Visual, auditory, tactile, and gustatory information.
What developmental issues are associated with Fetal Alcohol Syndrome (FAS)?
Slow development, poor coordination, impulsivity, and cognitive deficits.
What does Part I of the outline cover?
The CNS and Brain cells, Principles of Neuroanatomy, and Brain Systems.
What is depolarization in the context of postsynaptic potentials?
A decrease in the membrane potential, making it more positive.
What are the types of neurons based on the number of projections from the cell body?
Unipolar, bipolar, multipolar, and interneurons.
Where is the primary auditory cortex located?
Within Heschl’s gyrus, buried within the lateral sulcus.
What does 'graded' mean in relation to postsynaptic potentials?
Their amplitude is proportional to the intensity of the input; stronger stimuli produce bigger EPSPs and IPSPs.
What is Fetal Alcohol Syndrome (FAS)?
A condition resulting from alcohol exposure during pregnancy, leading to developmental issues.
What does neuroanatomy study?
The structure and organization of the nervous system.
What type of evidence has emerged regarding SARS-CoV-2 and the CNS?
Emerging evidences have revealed that it can infect the CNS.
What important structure does the pons contain?
The reticular formation.
What is the focus of the section titled 'Brain Development'?
The processes and stages involved in the development of the brain.
What is spatial summation?
The integration of two or more EPSPs, two or more IPSPs, or both.
What are the two main types of cells in the neural system?
Glia cells and neurons.
When is exposure to teratogens particularly harmful?
During the first trimester of pregnancy.
What is the first step in neurotransmitter action?
Synthesis.
What happens to neurotransmitters after synthesis?
They are stored in vesicles.
What virus is associated with COVID-19 and has been found to infect the CNS?
SARS-CoV-2.
What is Brodmann Area 17 known as?
Primary visual cortex (V1) or Striate cortex.
What behaviors are regulated by the hypothalamus?
Motivated behaviors.
What does membrane potential refer to?
The difference in electrical charge between the inside and the outside of the neuron.
What role does the thalamus play in motor control?
It helps coordinate voluntary movements by relaying information from the cerebellum and basal ganglia.
What is the resting membrane potential value?
-70 millivolts.
What imaging technique is used to assess ischemic strokes?
MRI.
In addition to which system does SARS-CoV-2 infect the central nervous system?
The respiratory system.
What is the function of the circle of Willis?
It encircles the base of the brain and supplies arterial blood.
What is a millivolt?
One thousandth of a volt.
What is the Blood-Brain Barrier?
A highly selective semipermeable border that separates circulating blood from the brain and extracellular fluid in the central nervous system.
What is synaptic pruning?
The process of eliminating excess synapses during childhood and adolescence.
What portion of the posterior cerebral artery is involved in the blood supply to the cortex?
A portion of the posterior cerebral artery contributes to the blood supply.
What is the percentage of the Alzheimer’s drug Aduhelm that actually gets through the blood-brain barrier?
Only 1%.
What is synaptogenesis?
The formation of new synapses in the CNS.
What are Brodmann's Areas?
Regions of the cortex demarcated by histological examination of cellular microanatomy.
What is neural integration?
The process of combining multiple signals to generate action potentials.
What does the homunculus represent?
The correspondence between cortical regions and body surface for somatosensory and motor processes.
What is the primary function of the limbic system?
Regulating emotions and memory.
Which part of the brain is mentioned as having neurosecretory neurons that utilize electrical synapses?
The Hypothalamus.
What is the threshold of excitation for many neurons?
-65 mV.
What is the primary function of the limbic system?
Emotion processing.
What is the primary function of the thalamus?
To act as a relay station for sensory information.
What role does the amygdala play in the limbic system?
It is involved in processing emotions, particularly fear and pleasure.
What is the primary source of evidence for neurogenesis in the adult brain?
Most evidence comes from animal research.
What are the four main brain lobes?
Frontal, Parietal, Occipital, Temporal.
What is a stroke?
A cerebrovascular disorder of sudden onset.
In which part of the brain has neuronal regeneration been observed in adult rats?
In the hippocampus, specifically the dentate gyrus.
What type of connections does the thalamus have with the cortex?
Reciprocal connections.
What are the grooves on the surface of the cerebral cortex called?
Fissures and sulci.
What is an Excitatory Postsynaptic Potential (EPSP)?
Depolarization of the inside of the neuron, making it less negative (e.g., from -70 to -60 mV).
Which structure in mammals is associated with neurogenesis?
The olfactory bulb.
What effect do EPSPs have on neuron firing?
They increase the likelihood of neuron firing and starting an action potential.
What type of mechanism do sodium-potassium pumps represent?
An active mechanism.
What is the 'critical period for language' in humans?
A biological window for language acquisition.
At what age does synaptogenesis peak in the visual cortex?
At 4 months.
What is the Medial PFC also known as?
Anterior Cingulate Cortex.
What is hyperpolarization?
An increase in the membrane potential, making it more negative.
What was the outcome for Genie, who was rescued at age 13?
She learned to pronounce only a few words and basic forms of non-verbal social communication.
What effect do IPSPs have on neuron firing?
They decrease the likelihood of neuron firing and starting an action potential.
What is the primary focus of Chapter 2 in 'Cognitive Neuroscience'?
The organization and functions of the nervous system.
What happens during synapse elimination?
Unused neural circuits are eliminated in a newborn.
What do the alterations in the gross structure of the nervous system lead to?
They give rise to the organization of the adult brain and brainstem.
What do gap junctions connect in electrical synapses?
The cytoplasms of two neurons.
What happens when a neuron fires?
It releases neurotransmitters from its buttons into the synaptic cleft.
What is an Action Potential (AP)?
A large, rapid reversal of the membrane potential, also known as 'neuronal firing', changing to +50 mV.
What is the function of the lateral hemisphere of the cerebellum?
Responsible for planning and timing of movements.
What are teratogens?
Substances or stimuli that are harmful to the fetus in utero.
What substances can act as teratogens?
Drugs, alcohol, smoking, environmental toxins, viruses, radiation, and lead.
What forms after egg fertilization at about 21 days?
The multicellular blastula.
What occurs if the threshold is reached in a neuron?
An Action Potential occurs.
What is the myelencephalon part of the hindbrain?
It includes the medulla, which contains major ascending and descending tracts and small nuclei.
What are the three layers formed in the blastula?
Ectoderm, Mesoderm, and Endoderm.
What is the second factor influencing ion distribution across the neural membrane?
Concentration gradient, which is the natural movement from high to low concentration.
How does the limbic system influence behavior?
By regulating emotional responses.
What is the role of sodium-potassium pumps in ion distribution?
They actively move 3 Na+ ions out for every 2 K+ ions moved in.
What is one of the key functions of the hypothalamus?
Endocrine function.
What is the function of the Ventrolateral Prefrontal Cortex (VLPFC)?
Involved in language and decision-making processes.
What percentage of strokes are ischemic?
Approximately 85%.
Which brain system is responsible for higher cognitive functions?
The prefrontal cortex.
Where does the primary visual cortex (V1) extend?
From the occipital pole onto the medial surface of the hemisphere.
What is an Inhibitory Postsynaptic Potential (IPSP)?
Hyperpolarization of the inside of the neuron, making it more negative (e.g., from -70 to -75 mV).
What system in the brain is involved in the regulation of autonomic functions?
The autonomic nervous system, which includes the sympathetic and parasympathetic systems.
Name one of the major fissures in the brain.
Longitudinal Fissure, Central Fissure, or Lateral Fissure.
What is the Brodmann area number for the primary auditory cortex?
BA 41.
What series of changes does the embryo undergo during prenatal development?
The embryo goes through a series of folds, or flexures.
What is the primary advantage of electrical synapses?
Very fast conduction.
What do neurotransmitters do after being released?
They bind with receptors of the next neuron.
Can new neurons be formed in the adult brain?
Yes, new neurons can be formed in the adult brain.
What are the main systems in the brain responsible for processing sensory information?
The sensory systems, including visual, auditory, and somatosensory systems.
Where is the thalamus located?
In the brain, above the brainstem.
What functions does the medulla relay?
Sensory and motor information between the brain and body, including sleep, attention, muscle tone, cardiac function, and respiration.
What system in the brain is crucial for motor control?
The motor system, including the motor cortex and basal ganglia.
What is the function of gyri in the cerebral cortex?
They increase the surface area for neural connections.
What arteries supply blood to the lateral aspect of the cortex?
Anterior, middle, and posterior cerebral arteries.
What topics are included in Part II of the outline?
Brain Development, Action Potentials, Synapses, and Neurotransmitters.
What is the role of glutamate in the brain?
Acts as the main excitatory neurotransmitter.
What is the speed of transmission for postsynaptic potentials?
They are transmitted rapidly, traveling about 2 millimeters instantaneously.
What are the meninges?
Three protective membranes covering the brain and spinal cord.
What cells form the Blood-Brain Barrier?
Endothelial cells of the capillary wall, astrocyte end-feet, and pericytes embedded in the capillary basement membrane.
What is the primary function of the neocortex?
It is involved in higher-order brain functions such as sensory perception, cognition, and motor commands.
What is gray matter composed of?
Cell bodies.
Which layer of the meninges is the outermost?
Dura mater.
What are the primary functions of the cerebellum?
Maintenance of balance and posture, timing of motor movements, coordination of voluntary movements, learning sequential information, and cognitive functions.
What is the primary function of neurons?
To transmit information throughout the nervous system.
What role do glial cells play in the neural system?
They support and protect neurons.
What part of the brain is the thalamus located in?
The diencephalon of the forebrain.
What type of research primarily informs our understanding of critical periods in neurodevelopment?
Mostly animal research on the development of sensory and motor systems.
What types of emotions does the limbic system help process?
Basic emotions such as fear, pleasure, and anger.
What is the third phase of prenatal neural development?
Migration and Aggregation.
What are the effects of enriched environments on brain development?
Thicker cortex, more synapses, and dendritic spines.
How does the thalamus contribute to consciousness?
By regulating the flow of information to the cerebral cortex.
What happens when a neurotransmitter binds to postsynaptic membrane receptors?
It changes the membrane potential.
What disorder is commonly associated with low levels of norepinephrine?
Depression.
What are the two types of channels involved in the action potential?
Voltage-activated sodium and potassium channels.
What is the threshold potential for initiating an action potential?
-55 to -65 mV.
How are postsynaptic potentials transmitted?
Decrementally, meaning they get weaker as they spread from their site of generation.
What is gray matter primarily composed of?
Neuron cell bodies, dendrites, and unmyelinated axons.
What is the abbreviation for the superior temporal gyrus?
STG.
Where are nuclei found in the CNS?
In subcortical and spinal structures.
Where is the pons located?
Between the brain and cerebellum.
What are the primary cells responsible for transmitting information in the Central Nervous System (CNS)?
Neurons.
Until what week does the proliferation of undifferentiated precursor cells occur?
Until week 5-6.
What does the blood-brain barrier protect the brain from?
Toxins and infections.
What functions is Dopamine involved in?
Attention, memory, reward, and behavior control.
What role do the vermis and intermediate zone of the cerebellum play?
They integrate sensory and motor information to coordinate voluntary movements.
How does the limbic system influence behavior?
By processing emotions and forming memories that affect decision-making.
What are postsynaptic potentials?
Changes in membrane polarization produced by presynaptic neurons releasing neurotransmitters.
What is the primary function of the cell membrane?
It separates the interior from the exterior of the cell.
What is the major function of serotonin?
Regulates mood, appetite, and sleep.
What is an infarct?
An area of dead or dying tissue.
What is synaptogenesis?
The formation of synapses, which varies by cortical area.
What is the process of releasing neurotransmitters into the synaptic cleft called?
Exocytosis.
What is formed from the Ectoderm during development?
The neural plate, which becomes the neural tube.
What is the optic chiasm primarily associated with?
Vision.
Which type of neuron is the most common?
Multipolar neurons.
Until what age does the prefrontal cortex continue to myelinate?
Until late adolescence.
What is the 'Proliferation Zone' in neuronal migration?
The ventricles where precursor cells proliferate.
At what age does the prefrontal cortex (PFC) typically mature?
Around age 25.
What does white matter consist of?
Axons, cell bodies, or glial cells.
What distinguishes action potentials from IPSPs/EPSPs?
Action potentials are active, slower, and non-decremental.
Where is gray matter typically found in the brain?
On the surface of the brain, forming the cerebral cortex.
What happens to the neurotransmitter after it is released?
It diffuses across the synaptic cleft.
Where is white matter typically located in the brain?
Beneath the gray matter, connecting different areas of the brain.
What did Eriksson et al. (1998) study in humans?
Neurogenesis in the dentate gyrus of the hippocampus and the sub-ventricular caudate.
What structure is associated with the limbic system in the forebrain?
Mammillary bodies.
What role do autoreceptors play in neurotransmitter action?
They provide inhibitory feedback.
Which arteries contribute to the circle of Willis?
Right and left internal carotid arteries.
Which neurotransmitter is involved in muscle movement?
Acetylcholine.
What equipment is needed to record a membrane potential?
An intracellular microelectrode and an extracellular microelectrode.
What can excessive Glutamate lead to?
Cell death, stroke, epilepsy, and neurodegenerative diseases.
What is dendritic branching?
The process by which neurons form new dendrites.
What effect do inhibitory postsynaptic potentials (IPSPs) have on the membrane?
They hyperpolarize the membrane.
What can result from too little GABA?
Seizures, heart issues, and blood pressure problems.
Where is Dopamine secreted from?
Adrenal glands and other parts of the brain.
What are critical periods in brain development?
Specific times during development when the brain is particularly receptive to certain stimuli.
What are the two main types of neurons found in the CNS?
Sensory neurons and motor neurons.
What type of neural tracts are present in the pons?
Neural tracts that ascend and descend.
What are the major parts of the brain?
The cerebrum, cerebellum, and brainstem.
What does the pia mater do?
It closely adheres to the surface of the brain and spinal cord, providing support and nourishment.
What does 'egocentrism' refer to in toddlers?
A cognitive limitation where toddlers cannot see things from perspectives other than their own.
What is the permeability of the resting membrane to Na+ ions?
The membrane is impermeable to Na+ ions.
What role does the cerebellum play in the brain?
The cerebellum coordinates voluntary movements and maintains posture and balance.
How many ventricles are there in the human brain?
Four main ventricles.
What is the function of the Olfactory Nerve (I)?
Smell.
Where are the lateral ventricles located?
In each hemisphere of the brain.
What is the final phase of prenatal neural development?
Neuronal Death and Synapse Rearrangement.
When does synaptogenesis peak in the prefrontal cortex?
At year 2.
What anatomical feature largely buries the primary visual cortex?
The calcarine fissure.
What is suggested for the lecture notes in Part II?
To review on your own.
What disorder is linked to a deficiency in acetylcholine?
Alzheimer's disease.
What are the two main organizational structures of neurons in the Central Nervous System (CNS)?
Nuclei and cortical layers.
What does 'HC' stand for in the context of FAS?
Healthy Control.
What is the role of GABA in the nervous system?
It functions as a fast inhibitory neurotransmitter.
What are interneurons?
Neurons that connect other neurons within the central nervous system.
What functions does the cerebellum support?
Both sensorimotor and cognitive functions.
What are the Basal Ganglia?
A group of nuclei in the brain involved in coordinating movement.
What is the role of Adrenaline/Noradrenaline?
It is involved in the 'fight or flight' response and attention.
What is the function of white matter in the spinal cord?
Conveys information from the brain down the spinal cord and from peripheral receptors to the brain.
What is the main function of the occipital lobe?
Responsible for visual processing.
What type of axons do ventral roots contain?
Motor axons.
What are dendro-dendritic synapses?
Synapses formed between the dendrites of two neurons.
What are the two types of postsynaptic potentials?
Excitatory (EPSPs) and inhibitory (IPSPs).
What do the primary auditory cortex and surrounding association areas represent?
Auditory stimuli.
What is the primary function of GABA?
Acts as the main inhibitory neurotransmitter.
What are the branches of the anterior cerebral artery responsible for?
Supplying blood to specific regions of the brain.
What happens during the action potential?
The opening and closing of voltage-activated sodium and potassium channels.
What is the main obstacle for drugs trying to enter the brain?
The blood-brain barrier.
What age is referenced for the comparison between a baby with FAS and a healthy control?
6 weeks.
What do Rostral and Caudal refer to?
Anterior and posterior.
What is white matter primarily composed of?
Myelinated axons.
What is the primary organ of the central nervous system?
The brain.
How many layers does the neocortex have?
Six layers.
What is the primary function of Serotonin?
Regulates mood, appetite, sleep, and memory.
Where is the concentration of Na+ (sodium) higher?
Outside the neuron.
What is the function of motor neurons in the CNS?
To transmit signals from the brain to muscles and glands.
What is the function of the Sympathetic System?
'Fight-or-flight' response; manages cortisol production via the HPA axis.
What is the primary function of Glutamate?
It is an excitatory neurotransmitter and the most common one, released by pyramidal cells.
What is the peak potential of an action potential?
+50 mV.
What characterizes bipolar neurons?
They have two projections emanating from the cell body.
What is the orientation of the Coronal section?
Anterior to posterior.
What condition occurs when the flow of cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) is blocked?
Hydrocephalus.
What occurs after vesicles bind to the presynaptic membrane?
Neurotransmitter is released into the synaptic cleft.
What role do radial glial cells play during embryonic development?
They guide neuronal migration.
What shape does the gray matter of the spinal cord resemble?
Butterfly shape.
What causes the specialization of different cells during neuronal development?
Gestational time.
Which layer of the neocortex is primarily responsible for receiving sensory input?
Layer IV.
What is the function of the cerebrum?
The cerebrum is responsible for higher brain functions, including thought, action, and sensory processing.
What does the cerebellum control?
Coordination and balance.
How resistant is the resting membrane to the passage of K+ ions?
Slightly resistant.
What are axo-somatic synapses?
Synapses formed between the axon of one neuron and the soma (cell body) of another.
What do the dorsal and ventral roots fuse to form?
Peripheral nerves.
What are the functions of the Vestibulocochlear Nerve (VIII)?
Hearing and balance.
What is the sixth step in neurotransmitter action?
Activation of postsynaptic receptors.
What is the metencephalon part of?
The hindbrain.
What is Heschl’s sulcus abbreviated as?
HS.
What are the main systems of the brain?
The limbic system, brainstem, and cerebral cortex.
Where does cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) circulate?
Through the ventricular system of the brain, the central canal of the spinal cord, and the subarachnoid space.
What are the stages of brain development?
Prenatal and post-natal development.
What is the main function of gray matter?
Processing and integrating information.
What part of the brain is associated with decision-making and social behavior?
The prefrontal cortex.
How many lobes does the cortex have?
4 lobes.
What are the main functions of the brain?
Regulating bodily functions, processing sensory information, and enabling cognition and emotions.
What is the significance of the six layers in the neocortex?
Each layer has distinct types of neurons and connections, contributing to various functions.
What are synapses?
The junctions where neurons communicate with each other.
What functions are associated with the parietal lobe?
Processing sensory information and spatial awareness.
Which structures are included in the Basal Ganglia?
The caudate nucleus, putamen, and globus pallidus.
What are ventricles in the context of the brain?
Cavities within the brain that produce and contain cerebrospinal fluid (CSF).
How does the coronal view help in studying the Basal Ganglia?
It provides a clear perspective of their anatomical relationships and structures.
What is the function of the brainstem?
The brainstem controls basic life functions such as breathing, heartbeat, and blood pressure.
Where do the cell bodies of peripheral sensory inputs reside?
In the dorsal-root ganglion.
What is the role of the Vagus Nerve (X)?
Parasympathetic innervation.
When do sensory and motor areas become myelinated?
In the first few months after birth.
What effect do excitatory postsynaptic potentials (EPSPs) have on the membrane?
They depolarize the membrane.
What characterizes unipolar neurons?
They have one projection emanating from the cell body.
What type of view shows Heschl’s gyrus within the lateral sulcus?
Coronal view.
What happens when the action potential reaches the axon terminals?
It causes voltage-gated Ca2+ channels to open.
How is cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) absorbed into the bloodstream?
It is absorbed into sinuses in the dura mater and then into the bloodstream.
What are the three layers of the meninges?
Dura mater, arachnoid mater, and pia mater.
What triggers vesicles to bind to the presynaptic membrane?
The opening of voltage-gated Ca2+ channels.
Why is the Blood-Brain Barrier important for neural function?
It allows the selective transport of crucial molecules such as glucose, water, and amino acids.
What is the primary function of glial cells?
To provide structural support and insulation for neurons.
What are teratogens?
Substances that can cause developmental malformations in a fetus.
How do action potentials travel along the axonal membrane?
From one sodium channel to the next.
What is the primary function of the Basal Ganglia?
To regulate voluntary motor movements, procedural learning, and routine behaviors.
What is the role of the cerebrum?
Involved in higher brain functions such as thought and action.
What are the main neurotransmitters in the brain?
Dopamine, serotonin, norepinephrine, and acetylcholine.
What are synaptic vesicles?
Small membrane-bound structures that contain neurotransmitters.
What is the speed of action potentials in unmyelinated neurons?
1 meter per second.
What is the maximum firing rate of a neuron?
1000 times per second.
What does the Optic Nerve (II) control?
Vision.
What direction does the Sagittal section represent?
Left to right.
What is the main part of the forebrain?
Telencephalon.
What functions are associated with the pons?
Eye movements (REM), face, and mouth.
What types of molecules can pass through the Blood-Brain Barrier?
Some molecules by passive diffusion, and selectively transported molecules like glucose, water, and amino acids.
What are gyri?
Ridges (hills) in the cortex.
What experimental method was used to open the blood-brain barrier?
Highly focused pulses of ultrasound along with tiny gas bubbles.
What type of matter is the neocortex primarily composed of?
Gray matter.
How is the cortex built during neuronal development?
From 'inside out', starting with the inside layers.
What is neuronal transmission?
The process by which neurons communicate through action potentials.
What is the function of Acetylcholine (Ach)?
Muscle excitation and supporting cognitive functions in the brain.
What does the Central Nervous System (CNS) consist of?
The brain and spinal cord.
What does the Sensory - Somatic Nervous System do?
Connects the brain to the world through sensory inputs and muscle outputs.
What functions does the Autonomic Nervous System control?
Many involuntary functions such as heart rate, digestion, and blood vessel regulation.
What does the Parasympathetic System do?
Settles the body down after a crisis.
What does the Facial Nerve (VII) control?
Facial expression.
What is the function of the Hypoglossal Nerve (XII)?
Tongue movement.
How are neurotransmitters deactivated?
Through re-uptake or enzymatic degradation.
What produces cerebrospinal fluid (CSF)?
Choroid plexuses, which are capillary networks in the ventricles.
What are the consequences of excessive GABA?
It can lead to coma.
What auditory structure is found in the pons?
Superior olive.
What do Dorsal and Ventral refer to in brain orientation?
The upper (dorsal) and lower (ventral) parts of the brain.
What is the main function of white matter?
Facilitating communication between different brain regions.
What guides the migration of neurons to the correct cortical layer during embryonic development?
Radial Glia.
What disorders are associated with Dopamine dysregulation?
Schizophrenia, Parkinson’s disease, and ADHD.
What is the function of the arachnoid mater?
It acts as a cushioning layer and contains cerebrospinal fluid.
What is the primary function of the frontal lobe?
Involved in decision making, problem solving, and controlling behavior.
How many patients were involved in the early-stage experiment with Aduhelm?
Three patients with mild Alzheimer’s.
What functions do astrocytes serve?
They provide oxygen and nutrients to neurons and may direct neurons on dendritic spine creation and synapse formation.
What is the role of the Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)?
Connects the brain to the world via senses and muscles.
What allows ions to pass through the membrane when the potential changes?
Specific Na+ and K+ ion channels.
What are the names of the four main ventricles?
Lateral ventricles, third ventricle, and fourth ventricle.
What functions does the Accessory Nerve (XI) serve?
Shoulder elevation and head turning.
What is a notable difference in brain structure between individuals with FAS and healthy controls?
Differences in white matter tracts.
What are cortical layers primarily associated with?
The cortex.
What is the role of glial cells in the CNS?
To support and protect neurons.
What is the distribution of charged ions in the resting membrane potential?
Positively and negatively charged ions are unequally distributed, with the inside being more negative than the outside.
What are sulci?
Depressions in the cortex.
What was the result of opening the blood-brain barrier during the experiment?
32 percent more plaque was dissolved.
Which cells myelinate axons in the brain and spinal cord?
Oligodendrocytes.
What is the role of the temporal lobe?
Involved in processing auditory information and memory.
What is the role of microglial cells?
To remove damaged cells.
What type of axons do dorsal roots contain?
Sensory axons.
What is Multiple Sclerosis?
An autoimmune disease where the immune system attacks cells in the brain and spinal cord.
What connects the third ventricle to the lateral ventricles?
The interventricular foramen (foramen of Monro).
What sensations does the Glossopharyngeal Nerve (IX) provide?
Oral sensation, taste, and salivation.
What type of study was conducted by Wozniak et al. in 2019 regarding FAS?
Post-mortem brain analysis.
What are some higher cognitive abilities associated with the prefrontal cortex?
Working memory, decision making, planning, inhibiting inappropriate responses, and following social rules.
What is the coronal view in neuroanatomy?
A vertical plane that divides the body into anterior and posterior sections.
What is the function of sensory neurons in the CNS?
To carry signals from sensory receptors to the brain.
What are dendritic spines?
Small protrusions on a neuron's dendrite that receive synaptic inputs.
What completes the process of synaptic transmission?
Binding of the neurotransmitter to receptor molecules in the postsynaptic membrane.
What is the speed of action potentials in myelinated motor neurons?
60 meters per second.
How many pairs of nerves are attached to the spinal cord?
31 pairs.
Which layer of the neocortex contains the most pyramidal neurons?
Layer III.
What are axo-dendritic synapses?
Synapses formed between the axon of one neuron and the dendrite of another.
What may cause Multiple Sclerosis?
Chronic inflammation.
What connects the third ventricle to the fourth ventricle?
The cerebral aqueduct (aqueduct of Sylvius).
What are the four main lobes of the brain?
Frontal, Parietal, Temporal, and Occipital lobes.
What task did J. Piaget use to study working memory in infants?
The 'A not B' task.
What cognitive issue can result from damage to the prefrontal cortex?
Working memory problems and 'perseverative' errors.
What is 'Saltatory Conduction'?
The process of action potentials jumping from one Node of Ranvier to the next in myelinated axons.
Where is the concentration of K+ (potassium) higher?
Inside the neuron.
What does the diencephalon consist of?
The diencephalon includes structures such as the thalamus and hypothalamus, which are involved in sensory and autonomic functions.
Which cranial nerves are responsible for eye movements?
Oculomotor (III), Trochlear (IV), and Abducens (VI) Nerves.
What is the role of the fourth ventricle?
To connect the brainstem to the spinal cord and allow CSF to flow into the subarachnoid space.
What is Fetal Alcohol Syndrome (FAS)?
A condition resulting from alcohol exposure during pregnancy, leading to developmental issues.
What are commissures?
Structures that connect the two hemispheres.
What are the five main divisions of the brain?
The five divisions are the cerebrum, cerebellum, brainstem, diencephalon, and limbic system.
What is the significance of interneurons in the CNS?
They connect sensory and motor neurons and process information.
What is the role of Layer V in the neocortex?
It is primarily involved in sending output to other brain regions.
What is the function of the brainstem?
Controls basic life functions such as breathing and heart rate.
What is the function of cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) in the ventricles?
To cushion the brain, remove waste, and provide nutrients.
What do the ventral horns of the spinal cord house?
Motor neurons that project their axons to innervate peripheral muscles.
What is the synaptic cleft?
The small gap between the presynaptic and postsynaptic neurons.
When does migration of neurons begin during embryonic development?
At 6 weeks.
What is the function of the synaptic button?
It is the terminal part of the axon that releases neurotransmitters into the synaptic cleft.
Which cells myelinate axons in the peripheral nervous system?
Schwann cells.
What is the limbic system associated with?
The limbic system is associated with emotions, memory, and motivation.
What is the primary function of the Trigeminal Nerve (V)?
Sensory information from the skin and face, and mastication.
