What type of agents are used against bacteria?
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Antibacterial agents.
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What type of agents are used against bacteria?
Antibacterial agents.
What biochemical differences are important in chemotherapy?
Differences between microorganisms and mammalian cells.
What number is mentioned alongside K. Erol?
What type of agents are used against parasites?
Antiparasitic agents (including antiprotozoal and antihelminthic).
How can immunodeficiency contribute to treatment failure?
It weakens the immune response, making infections harder to treat.
In what context is chemoprophylaxis used to prevent postoperative infections?
During surgical intervention related events.
How are antimicrobial agents classified according to their chemical structure?
Into sulfonamides and diaminopyrimidines, among others.
What is recommended for severe infections?
Loading doses.
What is a positive Coombs test indicative of?
It indicates hemolytic anemia.
What type of agents are used against fungi?
Antifungal agents.
What is the mechanism of action of antisense antibiotics?
They inhibit gene expression in bacteria in a sequence-specific manner.
What are antibiotics?
Substances produced by microorganisms that stop or kill the growth of other microorganisms.
What are synthetic antibacterial drugs?
Drugs like sulfonamides and quinolones that are artificially created to combat bacteria.
What type of infections does chemoprophylaxis aim to prevent?
Secondary bacterial infections.
Which drug is associated with neurologic symptoms affecting vision?
Ethambutol.
What does infection with persistent or dormant bacteria imply?
Infections caused by bacteria that can survive in a dormant state, making them difficult to eradicate with standard treatments.
What type of spectrum is often used in empiric treatment?
Broader spectrum antibiotics.
In the context of tolerance, what happens to the MBC when testing staphylococci and streptococci with penicillin?
The MBC increases, requiring a much higher concentration of penicillin to kill the bacteria.
What is the antimicrobial spectrum?
The range of different microorganisms that are sensitive to an antimicrobial agent.
What are substances used to kill or inhibit the growth of microorganisms on inanimate objects?
Disinfectants.
Who is K. Erol?
A person associated with the date 9/9/24, possibly an author or researcher.
What is the date mentioned?
September 9, 2024.
Who discovered penicillin and in what year?
Fleming discovered penicillin in 1928.
What are sulfonamides?
A class of antimicrobial agents including sulfadiazine, dapsone, and p-amino salicylic acid (PAS).
What is the date mentioned?
September 9, 2024.
What is the significance of the therapeutic index in this context?
It compares the safety of Penicillins and cephalosporins to aminoglycosides.
What is a serious condition that can complicate infections and make them difficult to treat?
Sepsis.
What are drug-related reasons for treatment failure?
Issues such as incorrect dosage, drug interactions, or inadequate drug formulation.
How does prophylaxis help with acute glomerulonephritis?
It helps in preventing recurrence.
In what situations can prophylaxis be beneficial due to immunological failures?
In cases of natural and iatrogenic immunological failures.
What types of microorganisms can produce antibiotics?
Bacteria, fungi, and actinomycetes.
What is a pharmacophore?
The chemical structure of a molecule that is responsible for its biological activity.
What is resistance development during treatment?
The process by which microorganisms become less susceptible to antimicrobial agents during therapy.
What is a challenge in treating infections located in certain areas of the body?
Infections in places where drugs cannot penetrate.
What condition can prophylaxis prevent in patients with coma or congestive heart failure (CHF)?
Pneumonia.
What factors can contribute to reduced drug absorption?
Various factors that affect drug absorption.
What might necessitate Post-treatment Suppressive Therapy?
An immunological or anatomical defect.
Which antibiotic is eliminated through the liver along with erythromycin?
Rifampin.
What is the elimination route for aminoglycosides?
Kidney.
What is the mechanism of action of Rifamycins?
They inhibit RNA polymerase, disrupting mRNA synthesis.
Name two examples of bacteriostatic agents.
Tetracyclines and chloramphenicol.
Who is the instructor for the Principles of Antimicrobial Therapy course?
Dr. Kevser Erol.
Who is known as the father of chemotherapy?
Paul Ehrlich.
What does the spectrum of antibiotics refer to?
The range of microorganisms that antibiotics can affect.
What is essential for effective treatment in terms of dosage?
Sufficient dose.
What must be considered alongside dosage for effective treatment?
Appropriate intervals.
What types of agents are used in primary prophylaxis?
Specific antiparasitic, antibacterial, antiviral, and antifungal agents.
What are the four main types of beta-lactams?
Penicillins, Cephalosporins, Monobactams, and Carbapenems.
What type of bacteria is associated with difficult-to-treat infections due to their resistance?
Multiresistant Gram-negative bacilli.
What type of adverse effect is associated with aminoglycosides?
Ototoxicity.
What is important to consider in empiric treatment?
The specific causative organism and its susceptibility in that patient.
What type of infections are commonly associated with the use of catheters?
Catheter-related infections.
What is one elimination route for Chloramphenicol?
Liver.
What is the composition of the murein layer in gram-positive bacteria?
It has a layer of 50-100 peptidoglycan molecules.
What is one mechanism of action for antimicrobial agents?
Inhibition of cell wall synthesis.
What is the role of folic acid antimetabolites in intermediary metabolism?
They inhibit the synthesis of folic acid, which is essential for DNA synthesis.
How can resistance develop in bacteria?
Through long-term treatment (e.g., tuberculosis) or short-term treatment (e.g., P. aeruginosa, Serratia infections).
What is transformation in the context of genetic transfer?
The uptake of free DNA from the environment by a bacterium.
What does the number 6 signify in this context?
It could refer to a specific classification, level, or category related to K. Erol's work.
What is a key structural target for selective antibiotics?
The cell wall.
Why is DNA and mRNA synthesis considered less selective?
Because it can affect both microorganisms and host cells.
What are the routes of administration mentioned for the drugs?
P.O. (oral) and parenteral.
Which classes of antibiotics are mentioned?
Aminoglycosides, some Penicillins, and cephalosporins.
What is the tissue sharing (partition) coefficient in pharmacokinetics?
It describes how a drug distributes between different tissues.
What is the term for the treatment of disease using chemical substances?
Chemotherapy.
What does an increase in the MBC/MIC ratio indicate in antimicrobial drugs?
It indicates tolerance, where MBC increases while MIC remains unchanged.
What does it mean when a drug is in vivo ineffective but in vitro effective?
It means the drug works in laboratory tests but fails to work in a living organism.
What type of anemia can result from adverse effects of some antimicrobial agents?
Hemolytic anemia.
What is the significance of the number 47 in the context of treatment?
It may refer to a specific case number or identifier.
What type of agents are Amphotericin B and Nystatin?
Bactericidal agents.
What types of inhibitors are mentioned in relation to the postantibiotic effect?
Protein and DNA synthesis inhibitors.
What is the focus of Principles of Antimicrobial Therapy?
The study of how to effectively use antimicrobial agents to treat infections.
When is the Principles of Antimicrobial Therapy course scheduled?
9/9/24.
What type of agents are used against viruses?
Antiviral agents.
What are the main types of pathogens in medical importance?
Bacteria, viruses, fungi, and parasites.
What significant development in antimicrobial therapy occurred in 1910?
Erlich introduced dyes like Trypan blue and Salvarsan for treating trypanosomiasis and syphilis.
What is one reason for patient-related failure in treatment?
Insufficient bioavailability.
What is perioperative prophylaxis?
Prevention of infections during the perioperative period.
What is preoperative prophylaxis?
Prevention of infections before surgical procedures.
What can lead to difficult-to-treat infections due to ineffective prior interventions?
Failure of previous treatments.
What is the process called that involves the use of antibiotics to kill or inhibit the growth of bacteria?
Antibiosis.
Which antimicrobial agents are mentioned in relation to concentration?
Fosfomycin and nalidixic acid.
What is one effect of increasing cytoplasmic membrane permeability?
It allows substances like amino acids, nucleotides, and potassium to enter or exit the cell.
What is chromosomal resistance?
Mutational changes in the bacterial chromosome that alter sensitivity to antibacterial drugs.
What type of mutation is associated with chromosomal resistance?
Spontaneous mutation.
What is the duration of pre-emptive treatment?
It is short and definite.
What is the effect of antibiotics on developing and reproducing bacteria?
They have a bactericidal effect.
In which century did Paul Ehrlich contribute to chemotherapy?
19th century.
Name some types of microorganisms targeted by chemotherapy.
Bacteria, fungi, chlamydia, rickettsia, amoeba, plasmodium, leishmania, protozoa, helminth, virus.
What type of cells are considered neoplastic?
Cancer cells.
What is the principle of selectivity in chemotherapy?
Maximize effect on microorganisms while minimizing effect on the host.
Who is associated with the date 9/9/24?
K. Erol.
What type of infection can occur around prostheses and foreign bodies?
Infection around prosthesis and foreign body.
What is primary prophylaxis?
Preventive treatment to reduce the risk of infections in immunocompromised individuals.
In which conditions is primary prophylaxis particularly important?
HIV-AIDS, solid organ transplantation, and when using immunosuppressants.
What are two examples of tetracyclines?
Oxytetracycline and doxycycline.
What is superinfection?
The development of a new infection during or after treatment for an existing infection, often due to antibiotic use.
What is one advantage of prophylaxis in heart catheterization?
Prevention of infections during the procedure.
What is a major drawback of antimicrobial resistance?
Treatment failure.
What can lead to a wrong diagnosis in treatment?
Misinterpretation of symptoms or inadequate testing.
What is a potential reason for pseudo failure related to disease?
Occurrence of a secondary disease.
What type of drugs may be used as a result of antimicrobial resistance?
Expensive, more toxic, and new drugs.
How many peptidoglycan molecules are present in the murein layer of gram-negative bacteria?
1-2 peptidoglycan molecules.
What is the mechanism of action for beta-lactams?
Inhibition of cell wall synthesis.
What are sulfonamides used for?
They are used as antimicrobial agents that inhibit bacterial growth by blocking folate synthesis.
What metabolic function do some antimicrobial agents inhibit?
Metabolic pathways.
Name two examples of bactericidal agents.
Penicillins and cephalosporins.
What happens if the bacterial cell wall cannot form?
The bacteria cannot survive or reproduce.
What enzyme is targeted by beta-lactams?
Transpeptidase.
Give an example of cross resistance.
Resistance between oxytetracycline and doxycycline or tetracycline and chloramphenicol.
Which narrow-spectrum chemotherapeutic is used for yeast fungi?
Nystatin.
What do microbial proteins serve as in the context of pharmacophores?
They are the targets for the active chemical moiety of the drug.
What is important to ensure the effectiveness of treatment over time?
Sufficient duration.
What type of patients are particularly at risk for difficult-to-treat infections?
Immunocompromised patients.
What is Zidovudine used for?
It is an antiviral that inhibits viral enzymes necessary for DNA synthesis.
Which antibiotic can cause convulsions as an adverse effect?
Penicillin.
How does antimicrobial resistance affect mortality rates?
It increases mortality.
What is one mechanism of action of antimicrobial agents?
Inhibition of bacterial cell wall synthesis and activation of lytic enzymes.
How do some antimicrobial agents affect the cell membrane?
They disrupt its permeability.
What do certain antimicrobial agents inhibit to affect protein synthesis?
They inhibit protein synthesis.
What is an example of a narrow spectrum antibiotic?
Penicillin G.
What is inhibited by some antimicrobial agents to affect nucleic acid synthesis?
Nucleic acid synthesis.
How can combined chemotherapeutic use impact resistance rates?
It may reduce the rate of resistance, as seen in Tuberculosis and AIDS.
What are plasmids?
Non-chromosomal elements in bacteria that contain sequenced genes.
What is the role of detergents in relation to cytoplasmic membranes?
Detergents increase the permeability of cytoplasmic membranes.
What are the two types of β-lactamases?
Structural and inducible β-lactamases.
What does MIC 90 represent?
The inhibitory drug concentration of 90% of strains.
What is local phlebitis?
Inflammation of a vein, often due to intravenous drug administration.
How do pharmacophores interfere with microorganisms?
By interfering with physiological pathways, inhibiting replication or directly killing microorganisms.
What is the role of antibiotics in medicine?
To treat infections caused by microorganisms.
What is a biochemical activity pathway?
A series of chemical reactions in a cell that antibiotics may target.
What does C ss max represent in pharmacokinetics?
Maximum plasma drug concentration at steady state.
What does t > Cp indicate in pharmacokinetics?
The time during which the plasma drug concentration remains above a certain limit for twenty-four hours.
Who is associated with the date 9/9/24?
K. Erol.
What should be considered in a risk-benefit analysis for prophylaxis?
The narrowest appropriate spectrum for the shortest duration to provide adequate protection.
What does tolerance refer to in the context of infections?
The ability of microorganisms to survive in the presence of antimicrobial agents without necessarily developing resistance.
What are microorganism-related reasons for treatment failure?
Factors like resistance to the drug, virulence, or the presence of biofilms that hinder treatment effectiveness.
What type of infections can prophylaxis help prevent in upper respiratory tract procedures?
Viral infections.
What is pseudo failure in a medical context?
A situation where treatment appears ineffective due to various factors.
What is the function of Vidarabin?
It is an antiviral that inhibits viral enzymes necessary for DNA synthesis.
What are the consequences of increasing the dose and prolonging the duration of treatment due to resistance?
Side effects and cost increases.
What is the significance of minimum duration in treatment?
If the minimum duration has not passed, treatment may seem ineffective.
What are substances that prevent infection by killing or inhibiting the growth of pathogens on living tissue?
Antiseptics.
How does pre-emptive treatment relate to primary prophylaxis?
It is similar to primary prophylaxis and targets early treatment.
What is non-chromosomal resistance?
Resistance acquired by bacteria through genes received from the environment or other bacteria, often via plasmids or transposons.
What is murein?
A component of bacterial cell walls.
Name a narrow spectrum antibiotic that is also a macrolide.
Erythromycin.
What is a characteristic of multiple step mutations in resistance?
Penicillin-type mutations.
What is Nalidixic acid used for?
It is a Quinolone that inhibits DNA synthesis.
What is the significance of the date 9/9/24?
It may refer to a specific event or context related to K. Erol.
How do interferon-based products function?
By inducing specific antiviral activities of the infected human cells.
What are susceptibility tests used for?
To determine the effectiveness of antimicrobial agents against specific pathogens.
What is the significance of the year 1939 in antimicrobial history?
Florey worked with P. notatum to develop penicillin.
Name two examples of diaminopyrimidines.
Trimethoprim and pyrimethamine.
What is empiric treatment?
Treatment initiated based on symptoms before definitive identification of the causative organism.
What is the inoculum effect?
The phenomenon where the effectiveness of an antimicrobial agent is influenced by the size of the bacterial population.
What are transposons?
Segments of DNA that can move within and between chromosomes and plasmids.
How are plasmids and transposons characterized in terms of transferability?
They are frequent and transferrable.
What are the two types of contact related to resistance?
In vitro and in vivo contact.
How can the frequency of resistant strains vary?
It may differ by countries, regions, and hospitals.
What are gastrointestinal disorders in relation to adverse effects?
They refer to complications affecting the digestive system.
What is a characteristic of single step mutations in resistance?
Streptomycin-type mutations.
Which antimicrobial agents are associated with renal injury?
Aminoglycosides and sulfonamides.
What is an example of a wide spectrum antibiotic?
Tetracycline.
Which bacterial species are known for multiple resistance?
Resistant Enterobacteriaceae species.
What types of organisms are targeted by chemotherapy?
Microorganisms and parasites.
How do penicillins demonstrate selectivity?
They specifically target bacterial cell walls.
What was the first sulfonamide introduced and by whom?
Prontosil was introduced by Domagk in 1932.
What is a complication that can lead to infection at the site?
Obstruction related to the infection site.
What number is mentioned alongside K. Erol?
What is a common adverse effect of drug therapy?
Drug allergy.
What adverse effect can occur as a reaction to medication, characterized by an increase in body temperature?
Drug fever.
What can lead to the inactivation of a drug in the infection area?
Inactivation of the drug in the infection area.
What is Ganciclovir primarily used to treat?
It is an antiviral that inhibits viral enzymes necessary for DNA synthesis.
What are some adjustments made in Post-treatment Suppressive Therapy?
Lower dose, different route of administration, or different antibiotic.
What is the primary action of bacteriostatics?
They prevent the development and reproduction of bacterial cells without killing them directly.
How can side effects of a drug mimic infection symptoms?
They can produce similar signs, leading to confusion in diagnosis.
Which enzymes do Quinolones target?
DNA gyrase and topoisomerase II.
Which antibiotic is classified as a narrow spectrum agent along with Penicillin G?
Streptomycin.
Which drugs can cause anaphylactoid reactions?
Rifampin and Amphotericin B.
What is the significance of a short half-life (t 1/2) in antibiotics?
It indicates that the drug is rapidly eliminated from the body.
What is Cyclosporine A classified as?
A bactericidal agent.
Which class of antibiotics includes vancomycin?
Bactericidal.
What is the target spectrum of Penicillin G?
A limited number of gram-negative or positive cocci, gram-positive some bacilli, and spirochetes.
What should be restricted regarding the use of antibiotics?
Its use in animals should be restricted.
What is empirical selection in the context of chemotherapeutic drugs?
Choosing drugs based on experience and clinical judgment rather than specific tests.
Who discovered penicillin and in what year?
Sir Alexander Fleming in 1928.
What major contributions did Florey, Chain, and Abraham make in relation to penicillin?
They worked on its development in 1940 and 1941.
Where should antibiotics be present in effective concentrations?
In wastes such as feces, urine, sputum, and secretions like saliva, sweat, and bile.
What is a pharmacophore according to Ehrlich?
The active chemical moiety of the drug that binds to the microbial receptor.
What is the primary goal of chemotherapy?
To kill microorganisms or parasites without harming the host.
What does empirical selection of drug refer to?
Choosing an antimicrobial agent based on clinical experience and knowledge of likely pathogens before specific test results are available.
What was the role of Trefouel in the development of sulfonamides?
Trefouel worked on Prontosil, leading to the development of sulfanilamide in 1937.
What is a key consideration for treatment duration?
Complete eradication and resistance.
What is one reason for drug-related failure?
Reduced penetration to the activity site.
Why is a delay in treatment potentially harmful to the patient?
Because it can worsen the patient's condition.
What type of urinary infections are often difficult to treat?
Chronic urinary infections with multiresistant bacteria.
Who is associated with the development of the germ theory and the concept of vaccination in 1871?
Louis Pasteur.
What are plasmids?
Non-chromosomal DNA fragments.
What is the date of the treatment session?
September 9, 2024.
Who is associated with the treatment on September 9, 2024?
K. Erol.
What are the two main types of antimicrobial resistance?
Natural and acquired resistance.
What is the elimination route for lincosamides?
Liver.
Can some strains of microorganisms be sensitive to antimicrobial agents?
Yes, some strains may be sensitive.
What is inhibited during ribosomal translation by certain antimicrobial agents?
Protein synthesis.
What is transpeptidation?
A process involved in cross-linking peptidoglycan layers in bacterial cell walls.
What does PAS stand for in the context of antimicrobial agents?
Para-aminosalicylic acid.
How common are chromosomal mutations in resistance?
They are rare and intransferrable.
What is bone marrow depression in the context of adverse effects?
A condition where the bone marrow's ability to produce blood cells is reduced.
What does MBC stand for?
Minimal Bactericidal Concentration.
What detoxification process is targeted in parasitic infections?
Parasitic chemical detoxification process.
Which antibiotic is known for its bactericidal action?
Penicillins.
What type of potency does MIC indicate?
Bacteriostatic potency.
What significant drug was developed by Klarer and Mietzhch between 1932-36?
Prontosil (sulfanilamide).
What is an example of a fungal antibiotic?
Penicillin.
What type of drug is Ketoconazole?
Antifungal.
What is the action of Tetracyclines?
They are bacteriostatic agents that inhibit protein synthesis.
What is Aztreonam used for?
Infections caused by Gram-negative bacteria.
What is chemoprophylaxis?
Prevention of healthy individuals from possible infections.
What does AUC stand for in pharmacokinetics?
Area under the time concentration curve.
What is pseudo failure in treatment?
A situation where treatment appears ineffective but may not be due to actual drug failure.
What are patient-related reasons for treatment failure?
Factors such as non-compliance, underlying health conditions, or lifestyle choices that affect treatment outcomes.
What can delay the definitive identification of the causative microorganism?
It can be delayed by at least 24 to 48 hours.
What is the purpose of Post-treatment Suppressive Therapy?
To control an infection that is not completely eradicated.
What type of therapy uses the body's immune system to fight diseases?
Immunotherapy.
What disorder is associated with adverse effects of certain antimicrobial drugs?
Disorder of hemostasis.
What is pre-emptive treatment?
Treatment that starts before symptoms appear in high-risk patients.
Can some strains of microorganisms be insensitive to antimicrobial agents?
Yes, some strains may be insensitive.
Which process is targeted by antimicrobial agents that affects cell membranes?
Inhibition of cell membrane synthesis and function.
What is conjugation?
A process where bacteria transfer genetic material through direct contact.
What is cross resistance?
A situation where bacteria develop resistance to multiple drugs due to exposure to one drug.
What type of drug is Actinomycin D?
An antibiotic that disrupts DNA synthesis.
What factors should be considered for optimal drug selection?
Untoward effects, costs, practicality, and population-level antimicrobial resistance.
What is the definition of MIC?
The lowest concentration of drugs that inhibit the reproduction of bacteria in culture medium.
Which class of drugs does Griseofulvin belong to?
Antifungal.
Name a broad-spectrum chemotherapeutic agent.
Tetracyclines.
What does bypassing a metabolic pathway inhibited by a drug mean?
The organism finds an alternative route to continue its metabolism.
Which antibiotics are classified as bactericidal?
Cephalosporins, Vancomycin, Isoniazid, Rifampin, Ciprofloxacin, Cotrimoxazole.
What is a safety requirement for antibiotics in terms of side effects?
They should not cause significant side effects in high doses and long-term use.
What is the mechanism of action of Rifampicin?
It inhibits bacterial RNA synthesis.
What does the speed of bactericidal action refer to?
The rate at which a drug kills bacteria.
What antibiotic was introduced in 1962?
Lincomycin.
What department is associated with the Principles of Antimicrobial Therapy course?
Dept. of Pharmacology.
Which drugs are known to potentially cause psychic disorders?
INH, Cycloserine, and quinolones.
What is the typical MBC/MIC ratio range for antimicrobial drugs?
Normally between 2-4.
What MBC/MIC ratio indicates tolerance?
A ratio that rises above 32.
Which antibiotic is eliminated through the kidney along with Penicillin G?
Aminoglycosides.
What is transduction?
A process by which DNA is transferred from one bacterium to another by a virus.
What do antibiotics do to bacterial cell wall synthesis?
They disrupt the biochemical reactions related to the synthesis of the bacterial cell wall.
What is the effect of Mitomycins on genetic material?
They inhibit DNA replication.
What role do leukocytes play in the media concerning antibiotics?
Leukocytes can influence the effectiveness of antibiotics in the media.
What are β-lactamases?
Enzymes produced by bacteria that provide resistance to β-lactam antibiotics.
What should be performed with bacteria isolated from the patient?
Sensitivity tests should be performed.
What role do lytic enzymes (otolysines) play in bacterial cell wall synthesis?
They are activated to help break down the cell wall.
What is the mechanism of action of ethambutol?
It inhibits the synthesis of the bacterial cell wall, specifically affecting mycobacteria.
What type of action does Chloramphenicol have?
Bacteriostatic.
What should plasma concentrations be in relation to MIC and MBC?
Plasma concentrations should be above the MIC and/or MBC.
What are beta-lactamase inhibitors used for?
To protect beta-lactam antibiotics from being broken down by bacteria.
What is an example of a carbapenem?
Imipenem.
What is the mechanism of action of Mebendazole?
It is used to treat helminthic infections.
What is the spectrum classification of Ureidopenicillins?
Broad-spectrum.
What type of bacteria does Polymyxin B target?
Gram-negative bacteria.
What is Griseofulvin primarily used to treat?
Fungal infections.
Which antibiotic was discovered in 1961?
Polymyxin E.
What are antibiotics primarily used to treat?
Bacterial and fungal infections.
Which group of bacteria is known for producing antibiotics?
Actinomycetes.
What is the postantibiotic effect?
The continued suppression of bacterial growth after antibiotic exposure.
What is cross resistance?
A phenomenon where resistance to one antimicrobial agent confers resistance to another agent.
What is the primary action of bactericidal agents?
They are directly lethal to the bacterial cell.
What is required for definitive treatment in antimicrobial therapy?
Identification of the pathogen and availability of susceptibility results.
What does MIC stand for?
Minimal Inhibitory Concentration.
What is cross resistance?
Resistance formed in a microorganism against similar antimicrobial drugs or those acting by a similar mechanism.
What is the significance of tests in pre-emptive treatment?
Tests may be positive even when no symptoms are present.
Which antibiotic is classified as a wide spectrum agent along with Tetracycline?
Chloramphenicol.
What role does P-glycoprotein play in drug resistance?
It facilitates the efflux of the drug from the cell.
Why is practicality important in drug selection?
It includes considerations like the number of doses administered per day.
What does reduced affinity of the target to the drug indicate?
The target site has changed, making the drug less effective.
What is the basis for the selection of chemotherapeutic drugs?
According to sensitivity tests.
What should happen to the effectiveness of antibiotics during the treatment period?
The effect should not decrease.
What type of agent is Amphotericin B?
It is a fungicidal agent used to treat fungal infections.
Which ribosomal subunit do lincosamides target?
50S ribosomal subunit.
Which antifungal was discovered in 1947?
Nystatin.
Which antibiotics were discovered in 1952?
Erythromycin and vancomycin.
What is the primary use of Metronidazole?
It is effective against anaerobic bacteria and certain parasites.
What type of antibiotic are Macrolides?
Bacteriostatic antibiotics.
What is an example of a situation where a drug is in vitro ineffective but in vivo effective?
Urinary infections.
What are teratogenic effects?
Effects that can cause developmental abnormalities in a fetus.
What happens when a drug loses its activity?
It may lead to treatment failure or pseudo failure.
Name two classes of bactericidal agents mentioned.
Polymyxins and Imidazoles.
What is a potential consequence of intestinal flora disorders?
Superinfection.
Which metabolic process is affected by some antimicrobial agents?
Nucleic acid metabolism.
What do some antiviral agents inhibit to prevent DNA synthesis?
Viral enzymes necessary for DNA synthesis.
Which drugs can cause liver injury?
Erythromycin estolate, INH, and rifampin.
How can the permeability of the cytoplasm membrane affect drug resistance?
Change in permeability can prevent drug entry (e.g., Tetracyclines).
What are some examples of untoward effects to consider in drug selection?
Toxicities or drug interactions.
What is Acyclovir used to treat?
Viral infections.
Which drug is commonly used as an antiprotozoal?
Metronidazole.
What is the action type of Aminoglycosides?
Bactericidal.
What type of potency does MBC indicate?
Bactericidal potency.
What are monobactams?
A class of beta-lactam antibiotics that includes Aztreonam.
Which antibiotic is derived from Actinomycetes?
Aminoglycosides.
What does cycloserine inhibit?
Bacterial cell wall synthesis.
What is Chloramphenicol used for?
It is a broad-spectrum bacteriostatic agent.
What significant drug was introduced in 1959?
Cephalosporin.
What is a Herxheimer reaction associated with?
Typhoid-chloramphenicol, syphilis-Pen-G, plague-streptomycin, and tuberculosis-INH.
What does an increase in MIC and MBC indicate?
It indicates a rise in resistance levels.
What is the function of trimethoprim?
It inhibits dihydrofolate reductase, further blocking folate synthesis in bacteria.
What type of organisms is Penicillin primarily effective against?
Bacterial organisms.
What are Azoles used for?
They are used as bactericidal agents.
What process related to folate is inhibited by some antimicrobial agents?
Folate synthesis.
What is a key characteristic of antibiotics regarding their spectrum?
They should be broad-spectrum.
What are cephalosporins?
A class of beta-lactam antibiotics.
What type of antimicrobial agent is Aminoglycosides?
Bactericidal agents.
Which drug is effective against malaria?
Chloroquine.
How can resistance elements affect the immune response?
They can alter the immune response, making it less effective.
What pharmacokinetic property is important for antibiotics?
They should show a rapid and continuous bactericidal effect in blood, extracellular fluids, tissues, and cerebrospinal fluid.
What is an important market consideration for antibiotics?
They should be easy to find and affordable.
When should antibacterials not be used?
In cases such as the common cold caused by viruses.
In which medical procedures is pre-emptive treatment commonly used?
Solid organ transplantation and hematopoietic stem cell transplants.
What is important regarding the dosage of antimicrobial drugs?
The drug should be used in sufficient doses and as soon as possible.
Which class of antibiotics includes erythromycin?
Bacteriostatics.
What does concentration fluctuation refer to in the context of antibiotics?
Variations in drug concentration can affect its efficacy.
What is the primary action of Daunorubicin?
It disrupts DNA synthesis.
What is the role of Metronidazole?
It disrupts DNA synthesis in anaerobic bacteria and protozoa.
What is the definition of MBC?
The lowest concentration of drugs that kill more than 99.9% of bacteria in culture medium.
Which class of antibiotics does Beta lactams belong to?
Bactericidal agents.
What type of infections does Amantadine target?
Viral infections.
What is the effect of overproduction of target enzymes in drug resistance?
It can outcompete the drug, reducing its effectiveness.
What type of spectrum do Tetracyclines have?
Broad-spectrum.
What antibiotic was discovered in 1944?
Streptomycin.
What antibiotic was introduced in 1948?
Aureomycin.
What antibiotic was discovered in 1957?
Rifamycin.
What is multiple resistance in bacteria?
The presence of more than one resistance gene in bacterial chromosomes, especially in plasmids.
What role do topoisomerases play in antimicrobial action?
They are involved in chromosomal conformation changes.
What is the primary use of INH?
Isoniazid (INH) is primarily used to treat tuberculosis.
Why is it important to monitor the prevalence of resistance?
To ensure effective treatment and understand local resistance patterns.
What type of antibiotics should be used if possible?
Narrow-spectrum antibiotics.
What is the spectrum of antibacterial action for protein synthesis inhibitors?
They have a broad spectrum of antibacterial action.
What is the primary use of Niclosamide?
As an antihelminthic.
What is the primary action of Erythromycin?
Bacteriostatic.
Name an antibiotic that is not a beta-lactam.
Vancomycin.
Which ribosomal subunit do macrolides target?
50S ribosomal subunit.
Which antibiotic is known for its use against skin infections caused by bacteria?
Bacitracin.
Which class of antibiotics includes Tetracyclines?
Actinomycetes-derived antibiotics.
What is one mechanism of resistance related to drug concentration?
Low concentration in the activity site.
What type of spectrum does Isoniazid target?
Narrow-spectrum, specifically mycobacteria.
What is the primary action of Sulfonamides?
Bacteriostatic.
Which class of antibiotics includes Tetracyclines?
Bacteriostatic agents.
What is the difference between bactericidal and bacteriostatic agents?
Bactericidal agents kill bacteria, while bacteriostatic agents inhibit bacterial growth.
What type of effect should antibiotics have?
A bactericidal effect.
Who discovered the Anthrax bacillus and in what year?
Pasteur and Joubert in 1877.
Which ribosomal subunit do tetracyclines target?
30S ribosomal subunit.
What is the postantibiotic effect?
The continued suppression of bacterial growth after the antibiotic has been removed.
What type of agent is Miconazole?
It is an antifungal agent.
What type of antibiotics are preferred in definitive treatment?
Narrower-spectrum antibiotics.
What viral components can be targeted by specific antiviral agents?
Viral proteases, viral integrases, and viral envelope entry/fusion proteins.
What are the main classes of bacterial cell wall synthesis inhibitors?
Beta-lactam antibiotics and others.
Name a type of beta-lactam antibiotic.
Penicillins.
Are most protein synthesis inhibitors bacteriostatic or bactericidal?
Most are bacteriostatic, but some, like aminoglycosides, are bactericidal.
Which ribosomal subunit do aminoglycosides target?
30S ribosomal subunit.
What should the death rate indicate regarding drug concentration?
The highest concentration of the drug in plasma with therapeutic doses should be 2 or more times the MIK 90.
What is the mechanism of action of bacitracin?
Inhibits bacterial cell wall synthesis.
What is fosfomycin used for?
To treat urinary tract infections by inhibiting cell wall synthesis.
Which antibiotic is known for its broad-spectrum activity?
Chloramphenicol.
What effect does cell division have on resistance proliferation ability?
It decreases proliferation ability.
What is the primary action of protein synthesis inhibitors in bacterial ribosomes?
They inhibit protein synthesis.
What is Doxorubicin primarily used for?
It is an anthracycline antibiotic that inhibits DNA synthesis.
What principles should be followed in hospitals regarding antibiotic use?
There should be principles of antibiotic use in hospitals.
How can elimination of the drug-target complex contribute to resistance?
It prevents the drug from exerting its effect on the target.
What is measured to ensure effective drug therapy?
Serum drug level.
What should happen to the antimicrobial power of antibiotics in bodily fluids?
It should not decrease in blood, plasma, tissue fluid, enzymes, germ products, and exudates.
What type of antimicrobial agents are Fluoroquinolones?
Bactericidal agents that inhibit DNA gyrase.
What type of antimicrobial agent are Sulfonamides?
Bacteriostatic agents that inhibit folic acid synthesis.
What type of agent is Erythromycin?
It is a bacteriostatic agent that inhibits protein synthesis.
Which antibiotics are mentioned in relation to chromosomal resistance?
Rifampicin and INH.
Which bacteria is associated with methicillin resistance?
Staphylococcus aureus (S. aureus).
What is a disadvantage of broad-spectrum chemotherapeutics?
Superinfection and resistance.
What is an advantage of using broad-spectrum chemotherapeutics?
Empirical treatment.
List two broad-spectrum chemotherapeutics.
Chloramphenicol and Imipenem.
What type of action does Clindamycin exhibit?
Bacteriostatic.
Name an antibiotic that belongs to the class of Cephalosporins.
Cephalosporin.
What factors are important in determining treatment effectiveness?
Dosage and duration of treatment.
What is a common mechanism by which bacteria can neutralize drugs?
Production of enzymes that break down drugs.
What is an important consideration regarding the development of resistance to antibiotics?
Rapid resistance should not develop.
What is Vancomycin primarily used for?
It is a bactericidal agent effective against Gram-positive bacteria.
Which ribosomal subunit does chloramphenicol target?
50S ribosomal subunit.
What is determined to assess the effectiveness of serum in treatment?
Bacteriostatic and bactericidal activity.
Which ribosomal subunit does spectinomycin target?
30S ribosomal subunit.
Which university offers the Principles of Antimicrobial Therapy course?
Kütahya Health Science University.
