IS FLASHCARDS

Microscopes:

• Impact: Revolutionized various fields such as medical science, environmental science, materials science, molecular biology, and forensics.
• Technological Advances: Ongoing improvements have expanded capabilities and applications.

Telescopes:

• Impact: Provided crucial insights into the universe, allowing astronomers to analyze data from various light and EM sources, understand the composition of celestial bodies, and measure distances in space.
• Technological Advances: Continued development in telescope technology has enhanced our understanding of the cosmos.

Nuclear decay is the process where an unstable nucleus transforms into a different nucleus, releasing energy and matter.

Half-life is the time required for half of the radioactive nuclei in a sample to decay.

The two types of radiotherapy are:

1. External Radiotherapy: Uses gamma rays directed at cancer cells.
2. Brachytherapy: Involves placing a radioactive source inside or near the tumor.

Purpose: To destroy or damage cancer cells, shrink tumors, or relieve symptoms.

Doctors believed that peptic ulcers were caused by spicy food, stress, smoking, and heavy drinking, which they thought increased acidity in the body. They did not consider bacteria as a cause because they believed bacteria could not survive in a highly acidic environment.

Gastric juices in the stomach aid digestion by breaking down food into smaller molecules, converting food into energy and essential nutrients for the body.

Peptic ulcers are sores that develop on the lining of the stomach or the duodenum, which is the beginning of the small intestine.

Their discovery challenged traditional beliefs about the causes of ulcers and led to their recognition with the Nobel Prize in Medicine for their groundbreaking work.

The line graph represents the relationship between a dependent variable and an independent variable, showing how changes in the independent variable affect the dependent variable.

• Adequate Space: Necessary for root and canopy development.
• Water and Nutrients: Essential for plant growth and metabolism.
• Air and Soil: Provide oxygen, carbon dioxide, and physical support.
• Light and Suitable Temperature: Needed for photosynthesis and metabolic processes.

Von Helmont was driven by curiosity about how plants grow, influenced by Nicolaus of Cusa's ideas and practical observations.

Von Helmont hypothesized that plants grow by taking up material from the soil.

Von Helmont concluded that the plant's growth was primarily due to water, not soil.

Von Helmont did not consider gases in the air, such as carbon dioxide, as contributing to plant growth.

Von Helmont emphasized the role of water in plant growth and paved the way for understanding photosynthesis, although he did not initially connect it with carbon dioxide.

Microwaves cause water molecules in food to vibrate, increasing the rate of vibration. This leads to more frequent collisions between water molecules, generating friction and thus heat.

While working with magnetrons, Spencer noticed that a chocolate bar in his pocket was warming up and melting, which led him to hypothesize that microwaves could be used for cooking food.

Marshall and Warren collected primary data through bacterial cultures and biopsies. They even conducted self-experiments as clinical trials were not feasible.

The study involved invasive procedures on children without appropriate ethical clearance, and Wakefield and his colleagues did not disclose financial conflicts of interest related to alternative vaccine products.

Vaccination rates fell, leading to outbreaks of measles, mumps, and rubella, with tragic outcomes including deaths among children exposed to these diseases.

'Publish or perish' refers to the intense pressure academics face to publish research regularly to advance their careers, often leading to compromised quality and reliability of scientific research.

They rushed their publication, accepted collaboration under pressure, and underwent a rushed peer review process, which led to significant issues with methodology and ultimately discredited their claims.

The claims made by Pons and Fleischmann generated public excitement but were later discredited, leading to a loss of trust in scientific claims and the importance of rigorous validation in research.

The purpose was to highlight and expose the issues with predatory journals and their lack of rigorous peer review, raising awareness about exploitation in academic publishing.

1. Review: Experts evaluate the research for accuracy and quality.

2. Revisions: Authors may amend and resubmit their work based on feedback.

3. Publication Decision: The process determines if the article is published, ensuring high-quality research.

• Scientific Collaboration: Facilitates cross-checking and validation by other experts.
• Trusted Communication: Provides a reliable form of scientific dissemination.
• Blind Review: Reduces conflicts of interest and manipulation by concealing reviewer identities.
• Bias Prevention: Helps mitigate personal biases.
• Accountability: Ensures researchers maintain high-quality standards.
• Integrity: Limits the risk of bribery and misconduct since peer reviewers are typically not paid.
• Hierarchical Structure: Reputable journals uphold stricter standards, enhancing overall research quality.

• Time and Effort: The process can be lengthy and demanding, potentially affecting the quality and timeliness of published papers.
• Bias: Peer reviewers may still be prone to personal or institutional biases.

The existence of predatory journals undermines the credibility and respect of the scientific community, revealing the lack of effective oversight to prevent their influence.

• Public Trust: Damages public trust in scientific research.
• Scientific Reputation: Erodes the credibility of science and affects policies based on flawed research.

• Transparency: Promoting openness in peer review processes.
• Ethics Committees: Establishing non-profit committees on publication ethics.
• Review Websites: Creating platforms to review and assess journals.
• Awareness Campaigns: Educating researchers about predatory journals and unethical practices.

Eratosthenes used shadows to make observations and calculated the distance between two cities. He measured the angles of shadows during the summer solstice and applied mathematical principles to estimate the Earth's circumference.

The Doppler effect describes how the pitch of a sound appears to rise as it approaches and drop as it moves away from an observer. This effect is due to the relative motion between the sound source and the observer.

As the source moves away from the observer, the frequency of the sound waves decreases, resulting in a lower pitch sound being heard by the observer.

Priestley concluded that plants produce a substance necessary for animal life, as the mouse survived when both a plant and a lit candle were present in the bell jar, indicating that the plant produced oxygen.

The hypothesis states that an increase in hydrogen peroxide concentration will boost the reaction rate because higher substrate levels lead to more frequent enzyme-substrate collisions, accelerating the reaction.

The controlled variables include:

1. 0% hydrogen peroxide solution (only distilled water) as control
2. Consistent time intervals (5 minutes)
3. Fixed amount of detergent (1 drop)
4. Constant temperature (room temperature)
5. Uniform potato size (1 cm³)

Accuracy was ensured by using a digital stopwatch to measure time to 1/100 of a second, reducing parallax errors, and measuring the height of gas bubbles in millimeters at eye level for precision.

Validity refers to the experiment testing only one independent variable (hydrogen peroxide concentration) while keeping all other factors constant, ensuring that changes in reaction rate are solely due to varying substrate concentrations.

Testing a variety of hydrogen peroxide concentrations is crucial to accurately assess how the reaction rate changes with concentration, including identifying the saturation point.

Replication is important to ensure the reliability of results and to account for any anomalies by performing multiple trials for each concentration.

Measuring the volume of oxygen produced, in addition to bubble height, can provide a more precise assessment of the reaction rate.

Using uniform potato samples ensures consistency in enzyme activity and concentration, which is essential for reliable experimental results.

Statistical methods can be applied to analyze data to determine the significance of results, and plotting substrate concentration against reaction rate can help visualize trends.

Potential sources of error include inconsistencies in bubble size and measurement inaccuracies, which should be identified and addressed to improve experimental accuracy.

Proper safety equipment such as gloves and goggles should be used when handling hydrogen peroxide to avoid irritation or injury.

Reliability measures how consistently a method yields accurate results across multiple trials, reducing data variability and minimizing the impact of outliers.

Accuracy refers to how close measurements are to their true or accepted values, which can be ensured by using precise timing methods and consistent measurement techniques.

Validity pertains to how well-controlled variables maintain a fair test and how effectively the data collection method supports the hypothesis.

Random error is variability due to chance that causes inconsistent measurement differences, such as scale reading variations and environmental fluctuations.

Systematic errors can be reduced by regular calibration of instruments, using standardized procedures, and comparing results with known standards.

Major mistakes due to carelessness or equipment failure can result in significant outliers. Examples include incorrect data recording and equipment malfunction. Reduction strategies include:

1. Follow procedures carefully
2. Maintain equipment
3. Discard outliers

Digital thermometers may have systematic errors due to calibration, while stopwatches can have both systematic (calibration) and random (human reaction time) errors. Strategies to minimize these errors include regular calibration, using automated timers, and averaging multiple trials.

For analogue devices, uncertainty is ± half of the smallest scale division (e.g., ±0.5 mm for a 1 mm scale). For digital devices, uncertainty is ± the smallest displayed division (e.g., ±0.1°C for a digital thermometer).

Digital devices are typically more accurate due to higher resolution and reduced parallax errors but may have rounding issues. Analogue devices are less precise due to human reading errors and scale limitations.

According to collision theory, higher temperature increases the kinetic energy of molecules, leading to more frequent and energetic collisions, which increases the reaction rate.

The factors affecting reaction rate include:

1. Temperature: Higher temperature increases kinetic energy and collision frequency.
2. Concentration: Higher concentration increases the number of particles, raising collision likelihood.
3. Surface Area: Larger surface area increases exposure of particles, resulting in more collisions.
4. Pressure: Higher pressure forces gaseous particles closer together, increasing collision frequency.
5. Catalyst: A catalyst lowers activation energy, providing an alternate pathway and increasing reaction rate.

Average Rate = Change in measurable quantity / Change in time. Units depend on the measurable quantity (e.g., g/s for mass change, mL/s for volume change).

The experiment investigates how temperature affects reaction rate by heating sodium thiosulfate and timing how long it takes for cloudiness to form, indicating reaction completion. The results are recorded and analyzed to see if the trend supports the theory.

Gases expand to fill any available space and have variable density because their molecules move freely and are not significantly affected by gravity or the Laws of Thermodynamics.

Plotting reaction rate (calculated from the inverse of reaction time) versus temperature allows for analysis of the trend to see if it supports the theory regarding the effect of temperature on reaction rates.

Gases are characterized by frequent collisions among molecules, which leads to pressure changes. These changes are influenced by temperature and volume.

An ideal gas is a theoretical gas where molecules have no volume and no intermolecular forces, perfectly following gas laws, unlike real gases which exhibit volume and intermolecular forces.

Boyle's Law states that at constant temperature, as the volume of a gas decreases, the pressure increases, and vice versa.

The formula for Boyle's Law is P1V1 = P2V2, where P1 and V1 are the initial pressure and volume, and P2 and V2 are the final pressure and volume.

To calculate the new pressure when the volume changes, rearrange the formula to P2 = (P1V1) / V2 and substitute the values accordingly.

The aim is to explore the effect of pressure on gas volume by identifying independent (pressure), dependent (volume), and controlled variables in the experiment.

Boyle's Law states that at constant temperature, the volume of a gas is inversely proportional to its pressure. This means that as the volume of a gas increases, its pressure decreases, and vice versa. The relationship can be expressed with the formula: P1V1 = P2V2.

Gases have the following characteristics:

• They move freely and expand to fill any container.
• The volume and pressure of a gas are inversely related; as volume increases, pressure decreases.

Charles' Law states that at constant pressure, the volume of a gas is directly proportional to its absolute temperature (measured in Kelvin). This contrasts with Boyle's Law, which deals with the inverse relationship between volume and pressure at constant temperature. The formula for Charles' Law is V1/T1 = V2/T2.

To conduct an investigation on Charles' Law, follow these steps:

1. Aim: Investigate how temperature affects the volume of a gas.
2. Identify Variables:
   • Independent Variable: Temperature
   • Dependent Variable: Volume
   • Controlled Variables: Pressure and amount of gas.
3. Design the Method: Plan how to measure and control these variables during the experiment.

1. Use suitable equipment and perform risk assessments.

2. Repeat experiments to confirm results.

3. Record results accurately and systematically.

Charles' Law states that the volume of a gas is directly proportional to its temperature when pressure is held constant. This can be demonstrated by inflating a balloon and measuring its circumference at different temperatures, recording the changes to observe the relationship.

As the temperature increases, the circumference of the balloon also increases, indicating that the gas expands as it heats up, which is consistent with Charles' Law.

Speed is the rate at which an object moves in a straight line, defined as the ratio of distance traveled to the time taken. It can be calculated using the formula: Speed = Distance / Time.

To investigate how speed affects distance traveled.

Independent Variable: Speed setting of the robot. Dependent Variable: Distance traveled.

Sphero 'Ollie' robot, tablet/phone, tape measure, stopwatch.

Program Ollie to travel for a set time at different speed settings (e.g., 25, 50, 75, 100).

Create tables to record time, distance, and average speed for each trial.

To ensure accuracy in the recorded results.

Computer simulations use mathematical equations and data to model and reproduce the behaviour of systems under various conditions.

Geological simulations help in:

1. Understanding Plate Movements: Improved knowledge of how tectonic plates move and interact.
2. Plate Interactions and Consequences: Insights into the outcomes of plate collisions and interactions.
3. Hazard Prediction and Resource Exploration: Development of early warning systems for geological hazards and predictions for oil reserves, aquifers, and coal deposits.
4. Historical and Climate Insights: Understanding changes in climate and life on Earth over geological timescales.

Rosalind Franklin's work was significant because:

• She used X-ray diffraction to study DNA, providing crucial evidence for its structure.
• Her famous image, Photo 51, revealed the helical shape of DNA, which was essential for Watson and Crick to build their model of the DNA double helix.

Simulations showed how bow-shaped mountain belts form at colliding tectonic plate boundaries, revealing patterns of heat, volcanic activity, and sediment deposition, which are critical for understanding geological processes.

The 'GPlates' software models 410 million years of Earth's history, enhancing understanding of geological history and plate movements, including the formation of Pangea and earlier supercontinents.

Friedrich Miescher discovered DNA in 1868, initially calling it 'nuclein' as it did not fit into known categories of proteins, fats, or carbohydrates, marking the beginning of DNA research.

The double helix model explains how genetic information is stored and replicated, providing insights into mutations and evolution. It has led to advancements in genetics, medical therapies, DNA fingerprinting, genetic engineering, and CRISPR technology.

The three types of radiation are:

1. Alpha Radiation: Consists of helium nuclei (2 protons and 2 neutrons).
2. Beta Radiation: Consists of electrons or positrons.
3. Gamma Radiation: High-energy electromagnetic waves.

Rutherford directed a beam of alpha particles at a very thin gold foil surrounded by a fluorescent screen to observe the scattering of particles, leading to the discovery of the atomic nucleus.

The observation indicated that atoms are mostly empty space, as most alpha particles passed through without deflection.

The deflection suggests that there is a small, dense, positively charged nucleus at the center of the atom, which repels the positively charged alpha particles.

Rutherford's model proposed that atoms consist of a dense, positively charged nucleus surrounded by mostly empty space, while the 'plum pudding' model suggested that positive charge was spread throughout the atom with electrons embedded in it.

Subsequent discoveries included:

1. James Chadwick's discovery of the neutron.
2. Development of quantum mechanics and physics.
3. Expansion of nuclear physics and chemistry.
4. Development of the Geiger Counter for detecting radiation.

Rutherford's work laid the groundwork for future discoveries in atomic theory, nuclear science, and technology, influencing both theoretical and applied sciences.

The Standard Model of Particle Physics, developed in the 1970s, explains the interactions between subatomic particles and forces, consisting of 12 matter particles including quarks that make up protons and neutrons.

Leptons are fundamental particles that include electrons and neutrinos, which do not interact with nuclear forces.

The four fundamental forces are:

1. Gravity
2. Electromagnetic Force (EM)
3. Strong Nuclear Force
4. Weak Nuclear Force

The Higgs boson is a particle associated with the Higgs field, which extends throughout the universe and is thought to give particles mass through interaction. Without the Higgs field, fundamental particles would not have mass, preventing the formation of atoms and matter as we know it.

Particles interacting with the Higgs field gain mass; particles like photons, which interact minimally, have little mass, whereas larger particles gain more mass.

The LHC is an enormous ring-shaped accelerator in Switzerland that collides beams of particles to study subatomic interactions and track new particles.

On July 4, 2012, the ATLAS and CMS experiments at the LHC identified a particle around 125 GeV, consistent with the Higgs boson.

Peter Higgs and François Englert were awarded the Nobel Prize in 2013 for their work on the Higgs mechanism, which explains how particles gain mass.

The discovery of the Higgs boson has several future implications, including:

• Insights into dark matter
• Potential to discover new particles with practical applications
• Enhanced understanding of the universe and the Standard Model
• Further research on antimatter and interactions with gravity through LHC upgrades.

Light is a type of electromagnetic (EM) radiation that is visible to the human eye, occupying a narrow band of the electromagnetic spectrum (roughly between 400 and 700 nm). Its properties include:

• Wavelength: Distance between successive peaks of a wave.
• Amplitude: Height of each peak in a wave.
• Frequency: Number of wavelengths passing a point in a given time period.

The electromagnetic spectrum is the range of all possible frequencies of electromagnetic radiation, including visible light, which is a small part of this spectrum.

The law of reflection states that the angle of incidence (incoming ray) equals the angle of reflection (outgoing ray). All rays, the normal (perpendicular to the surface), and the incident ray lie in the same plane.

When light passes from a less dense medium to a more dense medium, it bends towards the normal.

The purpose of a microscope is to view very small objects by magnifying them.

The early microscope was invented by Robert Hooke in 1665 using a combination of lenses and light.

The primary function of telescopes is to observe distant objects by magnifying their images.

Reflecting telescopes use mirrors to reflect and focus light.

Nuclear Chemistry is a sub-field of chemistry that focuses on radioactivity and nuclear processes. It studies how the chemical and physical properties of elements are affected by changes in their atomic nuclei.

Applications:

1. Element Formation: Investigates how elements are formed in the universe.
2. Medical Applications: Involves designing radioactive drugs and radiation therapies for cancer treatment.
3. Dating Techniques: Used for dating fossils and rock samples.
4. Energy Generation: Studies nuclear fusion and fission for power production.

Radioactivity is the emission of radiation from unstable atomic nuclei as they decay to reach a more stable state.

Key Concepts:

• Radioisotopes: Atoms with excess nuclear energy or unstable nuclei that emit radiation.
• Types of Radiation:
  • Alpha Radiation: Emission of alpha particles (helium nuclei).
  • Beta Radiation: Emission of beta particles (electrons or positrons).
  • Gamma Radiation: High-energy electromagnetic waves.

Personal, cultural, and socioeconomic perspectives can shape the direction of scientific research by:

• Influencing research priorities based on societal values and norms.
• Affecting the interpretation of research findings.
• Determining the accessibility and funding of research initiatives.

The long-term obsession with achieving the 'ideal body' has influenced societal perceptions about body image, leading to the popularity of fad diets and various workout plans aimed at achieving these ideals.

Cultural effects influencing food choices include:

• Religious taboos
• Cultural customs
• Knowledge and understanding of food and nutrition
• Availability
• Food distribution methods
• Social and peer pressure
• Advertising
• Travel
• Climate and geography
• Available technology
• Food preparation techniques and cooking methods

The socioeconomic advantages of a multicultural diet include:

• Restaurants bringing work and money into the community.
• Shopping for culturally different ingredients.
• Markets and agriculture evolving to provide new ingredients.
• Importing/exporting markets opening up opportunities.

Positive Impact:

• Radiotherapy: Effective cancer treatment with minimal damage to surrounding tissues.
• Scientific Advancements: Improved understanding of nuclear processes and applications.

Negative Impact:

• Nuclear Weapons: High destructive power with severe consequences for humanity and the environment.

• Rosalind Franklin (1952): Used X-ray crystallography to capture Photo 51, providing key insights into the structure of DNA.
• James Watson and Francis Crick (1953): Utilized Photo 51 and trial-and-error methods to propose the double helix structure of DNA. Franklin's data confirmed their model.

DNA (Deoxyribonucleic Acid) is composed of:

• Nucleotides: Repeating units comprising a phosphate group, a sugar group, and one of four nitrogen bases (Adenine (A), Thymine (T), Guanine (G), Cytosine (C)).
• Structure: DNA consists of two strands forming a double helix. The sequence of base pairs encodes genetic instructions.

Codons are sequences of three nucleotides that specify particular amino acids, which are crucial for protein synthesis.

Genetic biotechnology refers to the manipulation of an organism's genome for medical, agricultural, or industrial purposes.

The main techniques include:

1. Genetic Engineering: Deliberate alteration of an organism's genetic material.
2. Recombinant DNA Technology: Combining DNA from different species.
3. Reproductive Cloning: Transferring a nucleus from a donor cell into an enucleated egg to create a clone.

GMOs are organisms whose genetic material has been altered through genetic engineering.

The common production methods for GMOs include:

1. Recombinant DNA Technology
2. Reproductive Cloning

Common GMOs in agriculture include:

• Crops: Soybeans, corn, golden rice (enhanced for herbicide tolerance, pest resistance, and nutrient enrichment).
• Animals: Aquadvantage salmon, genetically modified pigs (improved disease resistance and production efficiency).

The benefits of GMOs in agriculture include:

• Increased crop yields
• Pest resistance
• Enhanced nutritional value
• Improved food security

Concerns associated with GMOs include:

• Regulation: Inadequate control over genetic modifications.
• Long-Term Effects: Potential health risks to consumers and environmental impacts.
• Mutations: Risk of unintended genetic changes and disruptions.

An earthquake is the sudden shaking of the ground caused by movements in the Earth's crust or volcanic activity.

Newton's First Law (Law of Inertia) states that an object remains at rest or in uniform motion unless acted upon by an external force. In earthquakes, the inertia of building upper levels causes them to resist movement, while the foundation moves with the shaking ground.

Newton's Second Law states that the force acting on an object is equal to its mass times its acceleration (F = ma). This principle is relevant during an earthquake as it explains how the forces acting on buildings can lead to structural failure.

Inertia causes the upper levels of a building to resist movement while the base moves due to ground shaking, leading to structural damage.

If a building's natural frequency of oscillation matches or is close to the earthquake's frequency, its oscillation can be amplified, increasing the risk of collapse.

Base isolation systems separate buildings from their foundation using materials like lead core rubber bearings, allowing the building to move independently of the shaking ground.

Benefits include life preservation, reduced economic impact, cultural preservation, advancements in science, and wind resistance.

Concerns include the focus on new constructions rather than retrofitting older buildings, high costs, and the fact that these technologies are not fail-safe.

They have extensive knowledge of using native plants for medicines, tools, construction, and other material uses.

Scientists are increasingly valuing and integrating traditional knowledge to address contemporary issues, particularly in medicinal and material uses of plants.

ATSI peoples utilize native plants for creating various items, including:

1. Shelters
2. Rope and string
3. Baskets and carrying vessels
4. Leaching bags
5. Eel traps

Common plants include:

1. Sugar Cane (Saccharum poaceae)
2. Raffia Palm Leaves
3. Grasses
4. Bangalow Palm Leaves

Fibers used by Maningrida Weavers include:

1. Pandanus Leaves (Pandanus spiralis)
2. Palms and Jungle Vines
3. Inner Bark from Kurrajong and Stringy Eucalypts

Products made by Maningrida Weavers include:

1. Mats
2. Dillybags
3. String bags
4. Baskets, often dyed with natural pigments

Examples of bush medicines include:

1. Tea Tree Oil: Used as an antiseptic and for treating colds, sore throats, fever, and antifungal treatment.
2. Lemon-scented Gum: Contains citronella, used as an insect repellent.
3. Peach Leaf Quinine: Used as a tea to treat colds.
4. Gumby Gumby: Used for treating colds, rashes, dandruff, and potential cancer treatment.

Bioharvesting is the process of collecting plants for use in food and medicines, informed by traditional knowledge. Challenges include:

1. Extracting active ingredients from hardy, heat-resistant plants can be difficult and costly.
2. Ethical concerns regarding intellectual property, sacred sites, accessibility, and environmental impact.

Ethical guidelines include:

1. Consult with ATSI stakeholders and local land councils.
2. Ensure respect for traditional knowledge and environmental sustainability.

Validity refers to the data being valid when accuracy and reliability are accounted for and when the data answers the question being asked.

Reliability is defined as data being reliable if the same method can be repeated and similar results obtained, requiring control of random and systematic errors.

Data is accurate when it measures the variable as close to the true value. Factors affecting accuracy include:

1. Systematic errors that reduce accuracy.
2. Random errors caused by sudden changes in experimental conditions.

• Ethical issues
• Budget limits
• Time restrictions
• Logistics

Selection/sample bias is a systematic error introduced when biased samples are chosen, leading to unreliable generalizations about populations. It can occur through convenience sampling or cherry-picking data that aligns with the original hypothesis, thus introducing bias.

Random sampling reduces selection bias by selecting population members without researcher bias. It involves numbering the population and choosing samples randomly, although it can be expensive and time-consuming.

Larger sample sizes from the same population yield different results due to inherent variability. The uncertainty is measured as margin of error, which affects the confidence interval around the mean. Increasing sample size can reduce this margin of error.

A 95% confidence level means that 95% of sample means from a population would fall within the upper and lower bounds of the confidence interval, offering high reliability in research findings.

• Target population
• Opportunity sampling
• Systematic sampling
• Stratified sampling (where the population is divided into subgroups based on common features)

Health claims in advertising can be categorized as:

• Evidence-based claims (e.g., gluten-free for coeliac)
• False claims (e.g., flushable wipes)
• Emotive claims (e.g., dog food) that rely on people's emotions and innate biases.

Evidence-based claims rely on valid data collected through replication of experiments to support the inference that a product can produce intended results, indicating its efficacy.

Organizations like ACCC check the validity of claims made by advertisers to protect consumer rights.

Control groups enable scientists to determine if a particular treatment is effective by comparing the exposed group with a non-exposed group.

Double-blind trials eliminate bias by ensuring that neither the participants nor the administrators know who is receiving the treatment, thus preventing expectations from influencing results.

Placebos can create a perceived positive impact on health, leading to false positives for real effectiveness, allowing scientists to confidently assess the actual effects of the treatment.

Factors include human bias, misrepresentation of scientific knowledge, and the use of quantitative data to make predictions, which can all influence how data is analyzed and understood.

Evidence includes satellite imagery and temperature, gas, and water sensors placed globally to monitor changes in temperatures and weather patterns.

Stereotyping can form biases that result in delayed treatment, as assumptions about individuals may affect the quality and timeliness of care they receive.

The expectancy effect refers to the biases of the researcher or individual making judgments on the quality of performance, leading to inaccurate assessments of data. This can result in skewed results based on preconceived notions rather than objective analysis.

Survivor selection bias occurs when patients who are likely to live longer receive more treatments compared to those who die early. This can lead to misleading conclusions about the effectiveness of treatments based on the outcomes of those who survive longer.

The presentation of statistical data can be misleading due to:

1. Graphical manipulation: Changing the scale on the X-axis or the starting point on the Y-axis can distort the interpretation.
2. Sample size: Studies with small sample sizes may not represent the population accurately.
3. Data complexity: Large amounts of data in tables can be hard to read, leading to overlooked important information.

Correlation indicates a relationship between two variables, where changes in one variable are associated with changes in another. However, causation implies that one variable directly affects the other. A strong correlation does not automatically indicate causality, especially in observational studies where other factors may influence the relationship.

Economic influences can affect scientific research outcomes in several ways:

• Sponsorship Bias: Research funded by companies may lead to biased results favoring the sponsor's products.
• Pressure to Publish: Scientists may rush findings or manipulate data to achieve statistically significant results, even when they are not valid.

The Hawthorne effect refers to the phenomenon where individuals modify their behavior in response to being observed. In experiments aimed at improving productivity, changes such as increased lighting or work breaks were found to improve productivity regardless of the actual changes made, primarily because the workers were aware they were being watched. This introduces bias, especially when a small sample size is chosen, as confounding variables influencing human behavior cannot be controlled effectively.

The 1991 study on Hormone Replacement Therapy (HRT) aimed to determine if it would prevent heart disease. However, it was later found in 2002 that HRT actually increased the risk of coronary heart disease (CHD). The average age of participants was 63 years, raising concerns that CHD may have already developed. Additionally, the study did not account for lifestyle impacts or the effects of different hormone combinations, which are significant confounding variables.

The Mozart Effect refers to a study where 36 college students listened to 10 minutes of either a Mozart sonata, a relaxation track, or silence before performing spatial tasks. The study found that students who listened to Mozart showed improvement. However, the results were misinterpreted due to the low sample size and the focus on a single task. Evidence suggests that while music can have beneficial effects, the direct correlation between improved intelligence and specific music is a fallacy.

The media's role in reporting climate science has become increasingly politicized, particularly in developed countries like the USA and Great Britain, affecting how facts are presented and perceived.

Misinformation can spread rapidly due to digital technology, making it essential to ensure that shared information is accurate, reliable, and valid to prevent its spread.

Critically evaluating media sources helps citizens avoid the spread of misinformation and maintain an informed society by assessing the reliability of information.

A scientific theory is a broad explanation supported by extensive evidence, while the casual use of 'theory' often refers to an idea or assumption without substantial backing.

A hypothesis is a testable idea based on observation that may contribute evidence to theories, whereas a theory is a well-supported explanation that has been extensively validated.

Scientific laws describe observations and relationships with mathematical support and do not evolve from theories; both are based on empirical data but serve different purposes in science.

Accurate communication is crucial for public interpretation of scientific developments, as miscommunication can lead to misunderstandings and misinformation.

Social media has surpassed traditional media in reporting scientific developments, allowing for rapid updates and global sharing, but also increasing the risk of misinformation.

An explanation of why phenomena happen and is supported by empirical evidence.

A hypothesis is an initial explanation or conception of an observed phenomenon that is tested scientifically, while a theory is a well-supported explanation of phenomena.

A scientific belief system requires empirical evidence to support a claim, whereas a faith-based belief system does not require empirical evidence.

To inform the general public about scientific discoveries and insights through engaging articles in various media platforms.

Popular science writing uses catchy phrases to attract a non-specialist audience, while scientific journals feature detailed headings to convey specific research findings to experts.

Scientific journals adhere to a structured format with precise, clear, and brief language, minimizing emotive language and including tables and graphs for data presentation.

Science can be manipulated to serve the interests of social, political, and economic groups, leading to conflicts of interest.

Industries with established practices may resist scientific findings that threaten their business and might ignore or dismiss recommendations that benefit the broader community.

Corporations may undermine research that contradicts their interests, which can hinder scientific progress and public knowledge.

The tobacco industry launched campaigns to create confusion and doubt about the established science linking smoking to cancer. They funded the 'Tobacco Industry Research Committee' to challenge scientific consensus and used media campaigns, such as the 1954 'A Frank Statement to Cigarette Smokers,' to cast doubt on the science.

The study, led by Surgeon General Luther Terry, confirmed the health hazards of smoking and supported policies aimed at reducing smoking, marking a pivotal moment in public health awareness and policy regarding tobacco use.

The fossil fuel industry employed denial and lobbying strategies, using aggressive marketing and funded research to refute climate science. They created uncertainty around the science and influenced policy, mirroring tactics used by the tobacco industry.

Michael Mann's Hockey Stick Graph, which showed a significant increase in global temperatures over the last century, highlighted human influence on climate change. It sparked controversy, with critics arguing for natural climate fluctuations, thus influencing public and scientific discourse on climate change.

Svante Arrhenius recognized the role of carbon dioxide in influencing Earth's heat budget in 1895. His work initially suggested a beneficial effect on climate but later contributed to the understanding of the greenhouse effect and its implications for global warming.

The fossil fuel industry, through lobbying and trade groups like the Global Climate Coalition and the American Petroleum Institute, recognized the role of fossil fuels in climate change but supported climate skepticism.

In 2017, the Heartland Institute distributed a 'factbook' denying the consensus on climate change to educators, funded by the fossil fuel industry, reflecting ongoing efforts to undermine climate science and misinform the public.

Combustion engines emit pollutants like carbon dioxide, hydrocarbons, nitrogen oxides, and particulate matter, contributing to smog and health issues such as respiratory illnesses, cardiovascular diseases, and cancer.

In the UK, vehicles contribute to a quarter of the health costs from outdoor air pollution, resulting in over 10,000 premature deaths annually.

The Volkswagen scandal involved the company cheating emissions tests with software that manipulated results, causing cars to emit over 40 times the legal limit of pollutants, leading to fines and significant financial losses.

Asbestos exposure can lead to asbestosis, a chronic lung disease, and mesothelioma, a rare cancer affecting the lining of the lungs and other organs.

Despite early warnings about asbestos dangers from as early as 1900, the asbestos industry suppressed knowledge of its health risks and continued to promote asbestos products.

James Hardie, a major asbestos manufacturer, exposed workers to asbestos without adequate protection and only began labeling products with warnings in the late 1970s and 1980s, ceasing production in 1987.

The halo effect is a cognitive bias where an overall impression of a person or entity influences judgments about their specific traits or abilities. In consumer behavior, this effect is utilized in marketing through celebrity endorsements and attractive advertising, leading consumers to perceive products as more effective or desirable based on the positive traits associated with the endorsers.

The Federal Trade Commission (FTC) fined Lumosity $2 million in 2016 for misleading advertising, as the company lacked scientific evidence to support claims that their brain training app could prevent cognitive decline, memory loss, or dementia. Despite a study suggesting better performance on cognitive tests, the FTC found the claims unsubstantiated.

The scientific consensus is that there is no compelling evidence that brain training games, including Lumosity, can reduce cognitive decline. More than 70 scientists have stated that the claims made by such apps lack sufficient scientific backing, and Lumosity has acknowledged the need for further research to validate its claims.

Astrology is considered a pseudoscience because it lacks scientific validation. Key reasons include: 1. Lack of Causality: No evidence shows that planetary positions cause personality traits or future events. 2. No Peer Review: Claims supporting astrology are not subject to peer-reviewed scientific scrutiny, undermining their credibility.

The halo effect contributes to the perceived credibility of brain training apps by creating a belief in their efficacy based on associations with scientific authority. This leads consumers to trust the effectiveness of these products simply because they are endorsed by trusted figures or presented as science-based, despite a lack of solid evidence.

Astrology is classified as pseudoscience because it does not adhere to scientific principles and lacks valid, empirical evidence. Scientific tests have not validated any predictions made by astrologers, and astrological beliefs do not adapt to new evidence, such as the omission of the 13th constellation in the zodiac system and the effects of the precession of the equinoxes.

Confirmation bias in numerology occurs when individuals notice their 'life number' repeatedly and attribute significance to it, leading them to search for information that confirms their pre-existing beliefs about the importance of that number, despite it being a random occurrence.

Iridology is criticized for being pseudoscience due to its lack of empirical support and rigorous testing. Its claims are not validated by large-scale, peer-reviewed studies, and practitioners often use special pleading to dismiss counter-evidence, such as claiming that certain conditions block accurate diagnosis.

Andrew Wakefield's study suggested a link between the MMR vaccine and autism, generating significant media attention and public concern, which led to a decline in MMR vaccination rates as parents became wary of vaccinating their children. However, the study was methodologically flawed due to its very small sample size, limiting the reliability of its conclusions.

• Before the Disaster: Positive public opinion and government support for nuclear power.
• Immediately After the Disaster: Public opinion dropped, nuclear plants shut down, and support for renewable energy increased.
• Today: Nuclear energy is seen as cleaner than fossil fuels, but there is a demand for more alternative energy sources.

Edward Jenner is known as the Father of Vaccination for his pioneering work in developing the smallpox vaccine, which significantly reduced the mortality and disfigurement caused by the disease.

Edward Jenner hypothesized that cowpox, a less virulent pox disease from milkmaids, could provide immunity against smallpox.

1. Infection: Injected patients with pus from cowpox pustules.
2. Testing Immunity: Later exposed the same patients to smallpox, which they did not contract.

The global vaccination program led to the successful eradication of smallpox, with the last case reported in Somalia in 1977.

Current vaccination programs include vaccines for Human Papillomavirus (HPV), Diphtheria, Tetanus, and Pertussis.

1. Thrust must exceed drag.
2. The wing shape creates high pressure below and low pressure above, generating lift (Bernoulli effect).
3. Newton's Laws describe the relationship between forces and motion, fundamental to understanding flight dynamics.

Regulation in scientific research is important for several reasons:

1. Preventing Misuse: Regulations help prevent the misuse of scientific findings, such as in bioweapons development.
2. Ensuring Validity: They set standards for experiments, ensuring reliability and transparency.
3. Accountability: Regulations hold scientists accountable, maintaining public trust in science.
4. Safety in Medicine: They ensure that new drugs and treatments are tested for safety and efficacy before public release.
5. Ethical Guidance: Regulations ethically guide new technologies, weighing benefits against potential negatives.

Unregulated development of biological weapons could compromise global safety, as governments might use these weapons in modern warfare, further endangering already vulnerable cultures affected by colonization.

Multinational companies are significant players in biotechnology research, providing seeds, agricultural chemicals, food processing, and pharmaceuticals.

Biotechnological weaponry is predominantly used in developing nations, increasing pressure on impoverished populations and necessitating a focus on regulating science to protect those without power.

The Geneva Protocol is a treaty that prohibits the use of chemical and biological weapons in international armed conflicts, establishing protocols for the use of asphyxiating, poisonous, or other gases in warfare.

Pharmaceutical regulations are legal, administrative, and technical measures taken by governments to ensure the safety, efficacy, and quality of medicines, reflecting community attitudes towards health issues.

Ethical considerations in clinical trials include informed consent, privacy, risk-benefit assessment, randomization, double-blind methods, independent review, equitable selection of participants, rights to withdraw, and compensation for harm.

Mining practices contribute to erosion, sinkholes, deforestation, and significant use of water resources, making them among the human activities with the widest environmental and social impacts.

Government approved permits are required for all new and ongoing mining operations.

Legislation has been created to ensure all property remains under ownership of the original custodians of the land.

Current mining practices need to change and develop with equity to better protect natural resources and ecosystems, ensuring they are environmentally acceptable and compliant with sustainable development objectives.

The resources regulator encourages best practices in mining and has key responsibilities to ensure compliance with the Mining Act 1992 and Mining Regulation 2016.

Ethical concerns include environmental degradation, acid mine drainage, labor exploitation, irresponsible mining affecting agricultural lands, lack of safety equipment for workers, and aggressive lobbying by the coal industry.

Bio-piracy refers to the use of biological resources or traditional knowledge without consent, leading to overexploitation of resources and violation of indigenous rights to protect their cultural heritage.

Bioprospecting is the exploration of natural sources for valuable biochemical and genetic information. It faces challenges due to a lack of policies and regulations to control it, and the need to clarify ownership of biological resources and associated knowledge.

• They provide a uniform set of rules and regulations for scientists across all fields.
• Clarify an organization's mission, values, and principles.
• Ensure respect for the rights of all constituents affected by scientific operations.

• Reproductive cloning is the deliberate production of genetically identical individuals, where each clone is a copy of the original.
• Concerns include:
  1. Violation of natural processes, seen as 'playing God'.
  2. High rates of failure and deformities in cloned animals.
  3. Serious health problems and painful procedures for donors and surrogates.

Cloning humans could create complex issues of identity and individuality, leading to psychological impacts on clones who may feel they have less autonomy over their existence.

Concerns arise over the potential exploitation of human embryos and the use of cloning for controversial purposes, such as selecting traits in offspring, which can lead to ethical slippery slopes.

Cloning technology could be misused for unethical purposes, including creating 'designer babies' or exploiting clones for their organs.

Relying on cloning can reduce genetic diversity, which is crucial for the survival and adaptation of species.

In 2002, the Australian Government passed legislation that prohibited cloning and the misuse of embryos, allowing embryo research only under certain circumstances with licenses granted by the NHMRC.

Stem cells are undifferentiated cells that have the ability to develop into many different types of cells. Their potential benefits include generating new human cells to replace old, faulty, or diseased cells.

Embryonic stem cell research involves extracting cells from a 4-5 day old embryo, which raises ethical issues due to the destruction of the embryo that would otherwise develop into a human.

Tissue-specific stem cells are derived from the patient and only give rise to cells of that tissue, making them less controversial compared to embryonic stem cells, which involve embryo destruction.

The International Society of Stem Cell Research sets the current standards for research, outlining rules and regulations for all phases of human embryonic stem cell research, including ethical, efficacy, and safety principles.

Surrogacy is a reproductive technology where a woman carries and births a baby but is not the intended parent. In Australia, surrogacy laws are legislated by states and territories, with some prohibiting residents from seeking international surrogacy.

The committee established in 2016 recommended that surrogacy remain illegal in Australia and that national laws be established regarding surrogacy practices.

The World Health Organization (WHO) provides global standards for organ transplantation, focusing on ethical, safe, and equitable practices.

Social issues such as education, health, security, and agriculture rely on scientific research input. Billions of dollars are invested globally into scientific research, but there are arguments that more urgent issues like world hunger, poverty, and displacement due to conflicts should take precedence.

The relationship between human progress and economic development can be summarized as:

• Human progress often encompasses improvements in quality of life, education, health, and social equity.
• Economic development typically refers to the growth of an economy, measured by factors like GDP.
• While they are related, they are not synonymous; economic development can occur without significant human progress, and vice versa.
• Different cultures and individuals may define and prioritize these concepts differently.

The 'Flavr Savr Tomato' was developed by silencing the genes responsible for ripening, allowing it to last up to 45 days without becoming overripe.

Examples include:

1. Insect/Pest Resistance: BT cotton modified to produce a substance toxic to cotton bollworm.
2. Disease Resistance: Plants modified to tolerate specific weedkillers.
3. Improved Nutritional Value: Plants modified to contain additional nutrients.
4. Biopharmaceuticals: Plants genetically modified to produce vaccines or medicines.

Petroleum products, such as gasoline, kerosene, and diesel fuels, are composed of petroleum hydrocarbons and their characteristics vary based on the amount of carbon in their molecular structure.

The process includes:

1. Oil extraction at the drilling well, often transported to a pipeline within the same week.
2. Analytical testing and quality control for 30,000 barrel batches takes around 12-24 hours.
3. Average shipment release takes about 4 weeks.

Possible alternatives include:

• Energy subsidies
• Mitigation: Reducing the use of petroleum and fossil fuels.
• Substitution: Renewable energy sources like solar, wind, geothermal, hydroelectricity, biodiesel, and natural gas.

Positives include:

• Safe regulated production improving global life quality.
• Long-standing provider of essential elements for modern life.

Negatives include:

• Environmental Hazards: Refineries are major pollutants.
• Air Pollution: Source of hazardous air pollutants, some cancer-causing.
• Water Pollution: Wastewater disposal can contaminate groundwater.
• Soil Pollution: Oils can kill organisms maintaining environmental balance.
• Human Health Risks: Varying effects from exposure, including nervous system effects and potential birth defects.

Drones are used in military surveillance, environmental mapping, weather forecasting, law enforcement, and wildlife tracking.

Drones can monitor crops, check disease spread, assess crop destruction, manage water distribution, spread fertilizers and pesticides, monitor livestock, and provide real-time data, all while being less expensive than helicopters.

Negative impacts include maintenance and expertise requirements, weight restrictions and limited battery life, potential damage and loss, job losses in agriculture and transportation, prohibitive costs for some communities, restricted airspace, and potential for illegal surveillance and warfare use.

Scientific research has led to minimally invasive surgical techniques, which shorten post-operative hospitalization, reduce pain and recovery time, minimize trauma to the body, lower infection risk, and decrease scar tissue formation.

Keyhole surgery, also known as laparoscopic surgery, is a minimally invasive surgical technique that uses small incisions and high-resolution camera technology, allowing for various procedures like appendectomies and gallbladder removals with less trauma and quicker recovery.

Benefits include:

1. Reduced postoperative pain and disability.
2. Shorter hospital stays and quicker recovery.
3. Lower infection rates due to less exposure of delicate tissues to air.

Video magnification provides better exposure of diseased organs and surrounding vessels and nerves, allowing for delicate maneuvers that protect these structures during surgery.

Developing countries often do not prioritize surgical care as a public health issue, leading to a chronic burden of ill health from surgically treatable and inflammatory conditions, and an estimated 5 billion people lack access to safe, affordable surgical and anesthesia care.

Surface water can be contaminated by:

• Salt
• Pesticides and other industrial/agricultural chemicals
• Silt from eroded soil
• Fertilizer runoff from farms
• Faecal matter from livestock/sewage
• Stormwater pollution
• Heat pollution
• Microorganisms and leachate

Wastewater treatment is the process that wastewater (stormwater, sewage, etc.) undergoes to make it safer for recycling and future use, as water cannot be created or destroyed.

The Lifestraw device allows contaminated water to become drinkable through a simple filtration system. It is lightweight, portable, and can be submerged in contaminated water, filtering out microorganisms and chemicals. It costs approximately $19.95 USD.

The WHO has suggested standards for drinking water quality assurance, which have been adapted by the NHMRC to reflect Australian requirements. Ensuring safe drinking water sources is a significant challenge for a growing global population.

Fluoridation is the addition of fluorides to the public water supply to reduce the incidence of tooth decay.

The WHO conducted studies that found family members and parents were the source of the outbreak, leading Australia to introduce free vaccinations for whooping cough to all pregnant women.

Herd immunity occurs when the majority of the population is vaccinated, providing protection for those who aren't. For it to be effective, 95% of the population needs to be vaccinated.

Factors include government budgets and allocation of funds, the influence of businesses and corporations, cultural and religious beliefs, and personal socioeconomic status.

Corporations can influence governments through campaign funding and lobbying, and they can affect public perception through advertising and media.

24% of drugs on the market today were discovered with the aid of serendipity, highlighting the role of chance in scientific breakthroughs.

Cost-controlled research can lead to:

• Removal of creativity in research.
• Manipulation of research outcomes by short-term business and political cycles.
• A culture of publish or perish, which pressures researchers to prioritize quantity over quality.

The ACGR provides funding to projects that align with schemes funded by the Australian Commonwealth government. The amount of study in a scientific area is dependent on the budget allocated to that area within a university, reflecting the government's priorities and social issues at a given time.

The objectives include:

1. Promoting research; generating ideas and commercialization.
2. Improving healthcare; investigating causes of diseases through genetics and biotechnology.
3. Stimulating economic growth; developing and retaining a highly skilled workforce.

The PIC Agreement outlines:

• The roles of the provider (traditional knowledge holder).
• The roles of the researcher. It ensures that the rights and knowledge of Indigenous communities are respected and acknowledged in research.

Non-monetary benefits include:

• Building infrastructure and resources.
• Joint publication or acknowledgment of research findings.
• Conservation of seeds, tissues, and varieties.

Politics influences food production and consumption through decisions made about:

• Production control
• Regulation
• Inspection
• Distribution
• Consumption

These decisions can be influenced by ethical, cultural, medical, and environmental disputes regarding proper farming, agriculture, and retailing methods.