What do sensory receptors detect?
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Internal and external stimuli.
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What do sensory receptors detect?
Internal and external stimuli.
What do satellite cells do?
They enclose the cell bodies of peripheral neurons and regulate their internal environment.
What percentage of cells in certain regions of the brain are astrocytes?
90%.
What happens when an action potential reaches the membrane of a synaptic knob?
It increases the membrane’s permeability to calcium ions by opening calcium ion channels.
What is the primary function of white matter in the brain and spinal cord?
White matter is responsible for transmitting signals between different regions of the brain and spinal cord.
Where does cerebrospinal fluid occupy?
The subarachnoid space of the meninges.
How do Schwann cells affect axon conduction?
They insulate the axons and increase their conduction.
What is membrane potential?
The potential for charges to move across the cell membrane.
What structure provides protection against collisions for the spinal cord?
The vertebral column.
What is divergence in the context of neuronal pools?
Divergence occurs when a neuron synapses with several other neurons, allowing an impulse to stimulate multiple neurons.
What does the motor division of the PNS do?
Conducts impulses from the CNS to effectors.
What is one function of Schwann cells related to injury?
They guide the regrowth of damaged axons.
What are the two main divisions of the human nervous system?
The Central Nervous System (CNS) and the Peripheral Nervous System (PNS).
What is the effect of an excitatory neurotransmitter?
It stimulates an impulse.
What are neurons?
The fundamental units of the brain and nervous system responsible for receiving sensory input and sending motor commands.
What is the role of neurotransmitters in synaptic transmission?
They can be either excitatory or inhibitory.
What do neurotransmitter molecules do after being released into the synaptic cleft?
They diffuse across the synaptic cleft and may bind to specific receptors on the postsynaptic cell.
How does the synapse contribute to signal integration?
By summing excitatory and inhibitory signals from multiple neurons.
What is the process called when a neuron changes from a negative to a positive charge?
Depolarization.
What do sensory receptors do?
Gather information by detecting changes inside and outside the body.
What components make up the Central Nervous System (CNS)?
The brain and spinal cord.
How does divergence amplify an impulse?
Divergence spreads an impulse to more neurons in the pool, increasing its overall effect.
What is the function of cerebrospinal fluid (CSF)?
It acts as a shock absorber and hydraulic cushion.
What role do Schwann cells play in axon regeneration?
They participate in axon regeneration, which is easier in the PNS than in the CNS.
What determines the net effect on the postsynaptic cell?
The combined effect of excitatory and inhibitory inputs from presynaptic neurons.
What is the primary composition of the dura mater?
Tough, white, fibrous connective tissue.
What disrupts continuous impulse conduction in myelinated axons?
The myelin sheath.
What proportion of neural tissue volume do neuroglia represent?
About half the volume of neural tissue.
Where does conduction occur in a myelinated axon?
At the Nodes of Ranvier.
What is the primary function of the myelin sheath?
To insulate axons and increase the speed of nerve impulse conduction.
What do Schwann cells produce?
The myelin sheath that surrounds the axons of peripheral nerves.
What happens during the depolarization phase of an action potential?
Sodium channels open, allowing Na+ ions to enter the neuron.
What is the term used to describe the difference in charges across a cell membrane?
Polarity.
What is one of the primary functions of astrocytes?
Preventing capillary leakage.
What happens after depolarization in a neuron?
There is a quick return to the resting membrane potential.
What are the two main divisions of the nervous system?
The Central Nervous System (CNS) and the Peripheral Nervous System (PNS).
What is the effect of an inhibitory neurotransmitter?
It prevents an impulse.
What do astrocytes regulate in neurons?
Ions and nutrients.
What do oligodendrocytes produce?
Insulating layers known as the myelin sheath.
What are the two categories of motor functions in the PNS?
Voluntary and involuntary.
How can sensory impulses utilize divergence?
An impulse from a sensory receptor may diverge to reach multiple regions of the CNS for processing and action.
What is the spinal cord?
A column of nervous tissue that passes downward from the brain into the vertebral canal.
What is the primary function of the nervous system in human beings?
It serves as the master control and communication system of the body.
What protective function do satellite cells provide?
They provide a protective coat around the cell bodies of peripheral neurons.
What is the charge distribution inside and outside most cells?
Most cells are negatively charged inside, while the extracellular space is positively charged.
What are the two main types of matter found in the cross section of the human brain and spinal cord?
White matter and gray matter.
What happens when neurotransmitter molecules bind to receptors on a postsynaptic cell?
They can have either an excitatory or inhibitory effect.
What are the protective membranes that lie between the bony encasement and the nervous tissue?
Meninges.
How many unmyelinated axons can a single Schwann cell enclose?
As many as 20 or more.
What are neurons specialized for?
To transmit messages (nerve impulses) from one part of the body to another.
What is the function of cerebrospinal fluid?
To support and protect the brain and spinal cord by absorbing forces.
What is the main difference between myelinated and unmyelinated axons?
Myelinated axons are covered with a myelin sheath, which increases the speed of nerve impulse transmission, while unmyelinated axons lack this sheath and transmit impulses more slowly.
What is the role of synapses in the nervous system?
They facilitate communication between neurons and the generation of action potentials.
How do Schwann cells compare to oligodendrocytes?
Both form myelin sheaths, but Schwann cells are in the PNS while oligodendrocytes are in the CNS.
What types of neuroglia are found in the Central Nervous System (CNS)?
Oligodendrocytes, astrocytes, ependymal cells, and microglia.
What role does the nervous system play in decision making?
It is involved in processing information for decision making.
What is the primary function of a synapse?
To transmit signals between neurons.
What is the primary function of the nervous system in humans?
To coordinate and control body activities and respond to internal and external stimuli.
What occurs along the axon as a result of action potentials?
A series of action potentials.
What are Schwann cells?
Flat cells that encircle PNS axons and form the myelin sheath around them.
What occurs after calcium ions diffuse inward during synaptic transmission?
Some synaptic vesicles fuse with the membrane and release neurotransmitter molecules into the synaptic cleft.
What is a synapse?
A connection between two neurons, which is the site of nerve signal transmission.
What occurs during repolarization?
Potassium channels open, allowing potassium to rush out of the cell.
What is the outermost layer of the meninges?
The dura mater.
What is the role of the vertebral column in relation to the spinal cord?
It provides protection against collisions.
How do microglia contribute to damaged areas in the CNS?
They form scars in damaged areas.
What is the role of the Peripheral Nervous System?
To connect the CNS to the limbs and organs.
What role do neurotransmitters play in synaptic transmission?
They are released from the presynaptic neuron and bind to receptors on the postsynaptic neuron.
What is the refractory period?
A period during which a neuron cannot generate another action potential.
What are astrocytes?
Star-shaped cells that are the largest and most numerous of all glial cells.
What do satellite cells regulate?
The exchange of materials between neuronal cell bodies and interstitial fluid.
What are microglia?
Small 'spider-shaped' cells scattered in the CNS.
How does a nerve impulse travel once begun?
At a constant strength.
How do astrocytes contribute to the blood-brain barrier (BBB)?
They help maintain the integrity of the BBB.
What are oligodendrocytes aligned along?
Axons of neurons.
What do neurons use to send signals?
Nerve impulses (electrical signals).
What is the dura mater?
A strong, tubular sheath that surrounds the spinal cord.
What is the primary function of the Nervous System?
To process sensory information and elicit appropriate responses.
What is the role of the myelin sheath?
It insulates the axon and prevents almost all ion movement.
What is facilitation in the context of synapses?
Facilitation occurs when repeated impulses on an excitatory presynaptic neuron cause it to release more neurotransmitter in response to a single impulse, increasing the likelihood of reaching the postsynaptic cell's threshold.
What triggers the generation of an action potential?
A sufficient depolarization of the neuron's membrane.
What is the role of potassium channels during an action potential?
They open to allow K+ ions to exit the neuron, repolarizing the membrane.
What are satellite cells?
Flat cells that surround the cell bodies of neurons in PNS ganglia.
What happens when charges flow from one area to another?
They create an electrical current.
What is the primary function of the nervous system in human beings?
To coordinate and control body activities and respond to internal and external stimuli.
What types of changes do sensory receptors detect?
External environmental factors (e.g., light, sound) and the body's internal environment (e.g., temperature, oxygen level).
What type of signal travels along the surface of the membrane of a neuron?
An electrical signal.
What is one of the primary functions of microglia?
Act as phagocytes to remove bacterial cells and cellular debris.
What happens during an inhibitory stimulus?
Cl– ions flow in or K+ ions flow out, making the charge more negative.
What is the role of calcium ions in synaptic transmission?
Calcium ions facilitate the fusion of synaptic vesicles with the membrane to release neurotransmitters.
How does an inhibitory stimulus affect a neuron?
It makes the neuron less likely to get excited.
How does myelination affect the conduction of action potentials?
Myelination allows for saltatory conduction, where action potentials jump between nodes of Ranvier, increasing the speed of transmission.
How does the nervous system contribute to homeostasis?
By regulating bodily functions and maintaining internal balance.
What is the role of the synapse in nerve communication?
The synapse is the junction where nerve impulses are transmitted from one neuron to another, allowing for communication between neurons.
What does the autonomic nervous system control?
Effectors that are involuntary, such as cardiac muscle, smooth muscle, and various glands.
What is the role of neuroglia in the PNS?
They completely surround axons and cell bodies.
What stimulates the adjacent region in impulse conduction?
An action potential in one region.
What does the local current do in the context of action potentials?
It stimulates the adjacent axon membrane to its threshold level, triggering another action potential.
What is the primary function of gray matter in the brain and spinal cord?
Gray matter is involved in processing and integrating information.
What surrounds the brain and spinal cord?
Cerebrospinal fluid (CSF).
What are the three structural classifications of neurons?
Multipolar, bipolar, and unipolar neurons.
What are the three layers of the meninges?
The dura mater, arachnoid mater, and pia mater.
What is the role of the Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)?
To connect the CNS to the limbs and organs, facilitating communication.
What is the significance of divergence in the CNS?
It allows the effect of a single neuron to be amplified, enabling impulses to reach enough motor units for forceful muscle contraction.
What is reestablished after repolarization?
Polarity between both sides of the neuron.
What are neuroglia?
A group of non-neuronal cells in the nervous system that support and protect neurons.
What triggers sensory impulses in sensory neurons?
Changes that occur inside or outside the body stimulate receptor cells.
What are neuronal pools?
Groups of neurons organized in the CNS that make hundreds of synaptic connections with each other to perform common functions.
What do axons do?
They send impulses away from the cell body towards other neurons or cells.
How is sensory information transmitted to the brain and spinal cord?
Through cranial and spinal nerves.
How do the structures of neurons vary?
They differ in structure, size, and shape.
What are the main functions of the nervous system?
Sensory input, integration, and motor output.
What is an action potential?
A rapid change in membrane potential that propagates along a neuron.
What are the two divisions of the Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)?
Sensory and motor divisions.
What does the sensory, or afferent division do?
Brings information into the Central Nervous System (CNS).
What type of response does the action potential exhibit?
All-or-none response.
Where are ganglia located?
Outside the CNS, consisting of collections of neuronal cell bodies.
From which cells do microglia develop?
From white blood cells (monocytes).
What are neurons?
Nerve cells that transmit impulses in the nervous system.
Where are most multipolar neurons located?
Within the brain or spinal cord.
Are the pre-synaptic and post-synaptic neurons in direct physical contact?
No, they are separated by a gap called the synaptic cleft.
What type of neurons are found in specialized parts of the eyes, nose, and ears?
Bipolar neurons.
What is the role of the pre-synaptic neuron?
It is the impulse sender.
How many presynaptic neurons can influence a postsynaptic cell?
As few as 1 to as many as 10,000.
What is the composition of the myelin sheath?
A multilayered lipid and protein covering.
What is the common structural type of most sensory neurons?
Most sensory neurons are unipolar; some are bipolar.
What is a stimulus in the context of action potential?
Anything that can change the resting potential of –70 mV in either direction.
What type of process is synaptic transmission?
A one-way process, from presynaptic neuron to postsynaptic neuron.
What are the main organs of the nervous system in humans?
The central nervous system (CNS) and the peripheral nervous system (PNS).
Why is it important for neurotransmitters to be removed from the synaptic cleft?
To prevent continuous action on postsynaptic neurons.
What are effectors in the context of the nervous system?
Muscles and glands that are activated to produce a response.
What contributes to the overall negative charge inside a neuron?
Negatively charged proteins and large phosphate and sulfate anions.
Where do interneurons lie?
Entirely within the brain or spinal cord.
Where are sodium (Na+) ions found in higher concentration?
In the extracellular space.
What are mixed nerves?
Nerves that include axons of both sensory and motor neurons.
What structure connects the brain to the peripheral nervous system?
The spinal cord.
Do dendrites have synaptic knobs?
No, dendrites do not have synaptic knobs.
What is one function of neuroglia in the CNS?
To maintain homeostasis and form myelin.
What determines the action of a neurotransmitter?
The receptors at a particular synapse.
What is the primary function of sensory neurons?
To conduct impulses from peripheral body parts into the brain or spinal cord.
What does the Central Nervous System consist of?
The brain and spinal cord.
How does the nervous system contribute to homeostasis?
By regulating bodily functions and maintaining internal balance.
How does cerebrospinal fluid circulate?
Through the ventricles and central canal, entering the subarachnoid space, and being reabsorbed into the blood.
How does the myelin sheath affect neural conduction speed in the CNS?
It increases the neural conduction speed.
What does the dura mater contain?
Many blood vessels and nerves.
What happens when a neuron in a neuronal pool receives both excitatory and inhibitory inputs?
The net effect determines whether an outgoing impulse is triggered or not.
Do neuroglia produce nerve impulses?
No, they do not produce nerve impulses.
What type of cells are ependymal cells?
Cuboidal to columnar cells.
What do ependymal cells line in the brain?
The cavities called ventricles.
What is the primary function of the spinal cord?
To transmit signals between the brain and the rest of the body.
What ions flow into the neuron during the action potential?
Na+ ions.
What does the central nervous system consist of?
The brain and spinal cord.
What is the threshold potential for generating an action potential?
−55 mV.
How do neurons communicate with each other?
Through synapses using neurotransmitters.
What are the functional roles of ependymal cells regarding CSF?
They produce, possibly monitor, and assist in the circulation of CSF.
What are the two main divisions of the nervous system?
Central Nervous System (CNS) and Peripheral Nervous System (PNS).
What is the title of the 15th edition textbook by Welsh, Prentice-Craver, and Hole?
Hole’s Essentials of Human Anatomy & Physiology.
What do interneurons do with incoming sensory impulses?
Direct them to the CNS for processing and interpreting.
What is the process of integration in the nervous system?
The interpretation of sensory input to generate a response.
What is the function of myelin in the nervous system?
To insulate axons and increase the speed of signal transmission.
Who are the authors of 'Fundamentals of Anatomy & Physiology'?
Martini, Nath, and Bartholomew.
What is the title of the 15th edition textbook published by Shier et al.?
HOLE’S Anatomy & Physiology.
What electronic resource is available via CIHE library for anatomy and physiology?
Anatomy TV.
What is the function of interneurons?
To connect sensory and motor neurons within the central nervous system.
What is the function of astrocytes?
To provide structural support, regulate blood flow, and maintain the blood-brain barrier.
What can break down the Blood-Brain Barrier?
Trauma, certain toxins, and inflammation.
What is the function of Schwann cells?
To form the myelin sheath around peripheral nerves.
What is one function of satellite cells?
Providing structural support to neuronal cell bodies.
What are effectors?
Responsive structures that cause a response, such as muscles and glands.
What is the function of the cell body in a neuron?
It maintains the proper diameter of the axon for impulse conduction.
What is the core structure of the spinal cord composed of?
Gray matter, which consists mostly of cell bodies and dendrites.
What is the role of dendrites in neurons?
They provide a large surface area to receive information from other neurons.
What are the cell bodies of neurons in the gray matter called?
Horns.
How do sensory impulses travel to the brain or spinal cord?
They travel along the sensory neuron axons.
What types of neuroglia are found in the Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)?
Schwann cells and satellite cells.
What is an action potential?
An action potential is a rapid change in electrical potential across a neuron's membrane, allowing for the transmission of nerve impulses.
What functions do neuroglia provide for neurons?
Protection, support, and insulation.
What happens after sensory information is integrated?
The nervous system elicits an appropriate motor response by activating effectors.
What are the two main structures that divide the spinal cord into right and left halves?
Anterior median fissure and shallow posterior median sulcus.
What is one of the primary functions of cerebrospinal fluid?
Mechanical protection, acting as a shock-absorbing medium.
How many neurons are in the human brain?
Approximately 85 billion neurons.
What are the four main regions of the vertebral column?
Cervical, Thoracic, Lumbar, and Sacral regions.
What is the role of the spinal cord in the nervous system?
To transmit signals between the brain and the rest of the body.
How many pairs of spinal nerves are in the cervical region?
8 pairs (C1 to C8).
What is the function of the meninges?
To protect the brain and spinal cord.
Name some amino acids that act as neurotransmitters.
Glycine, glutamic acid, aspartic acid, and gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA).
Which types of neuroglia are found in the Central Nervous System (CNS)?
Oligodendrocytes, astrocytes, ependymal cells, and microglia.
What are the main functions of the human brain?
Processing information and controlling bodily functions.
What are neurotransmitters?
Endogenous chemicals that allow neurons to communicate with each other throughout the body.
How many pairs of spinal nerves are in the sacral region?
5 pairs (S1 to S5).
How many pairs of cranial nerves are there?
12 pairs.
What does the autonomic nervous system control?
Involuntary physiological changes and responses.
What type of junctions connect capillary endothelial cells in the brain?
Tight junctions.
What do satellite cells do in the PNS?
They support and protect neuronal cell bodies.
What are the main types of neuroglia in the CNS?
Astrocytes, oligodendrocytes, microglia, and ependymal cells.
What types of neuroglia are found in the PNS?
Schwann cells and satellite cells.
What specialized structures do sensory neurons have?
Specialized receptor ends at the tips of their dendrites.
What are the three distinct parts of a neuron?
Cell body, dendrites, and axon.
How does the dura mater relate to the vertebral canal?
It continues into the vertebral canal as a sheath.
Where are the cell bodies of unipolar neurons located?
In ganglia, which are outside the brain and spinal cord.
Which system controls voluntary (conscious) movements?
The somatic nervous system.
What is a ganglion?
A specialized mass of nervous tissue where unipolar neuron cell bodies are found.
What fills the synaptic cleft?
Interstitial fluid.
What are the two main types of cells in the nervous system?
Neurons and neuroglia.
How does saltatory conduction benefit neurons?
It saves energy and speeds up the transmission of impulses.
What happens to neuroglia in case of injury?
They multiply to fill in the spaces formerly occupied by neurons.
What role do neuroglia play in the nervous system?
They support and protect neurons.
How many different types of neurotransmitters have been identified in the nervous system?
More than 100.
What is the function of the brainstem?
Controls basic life functions such as breathing and heart rate.
What happens when the threshold stimulus is reached?
Na+ flows in long enough to change the potential to −55 mV.
What are the two main types of cells in the nervous system?
Neurons and neuroglia.
What is the structure of interneurons?
They are multipolar and link other neurons.
What is the direction of Na+ movement during depolarization?
From extracellular fluid (ECF) to intracellular fluid (ICF).
How many pairs of spinal nerves are in the thoracic region?
12 pairs (T1 to T12).
What happens after Na+ channels open and depolarization occurs?
K+ channels in the axon membrane open.
What are sensory fibers also known as?
Afferent fibers.
Can neurons release more than one type of neurotransmitter?
Yes, some neurons release only one type, while others can release two or three types.
What is the direction of K+ movement during repolarization?
From intracellular fluid (ICF) to extracellular fluid (ECF).
Which neurotransmitters are known as adrenaline and noradrenaline?
Epinephrine and norepinephrine.
What do tight junctions in the BBB prevent?
Unwanted materials from diffusing into the brain.
What substances can access brain tissue freely?
Fat-soluble substances, O2, CO2, alcohol, and most anesthetic agents.
What is the role of the post-synaptic neuron?
It is the impulse receiver.
What is the function of the gray matter in the spinal cord?
It serves as an integrating and reflex processing center.
What does the epidural space contain?
Loose connective and adipose tissues.
What is the integrative function of the nervous system?
To process sensory information by analyzing it and making decisions for appropriate responses.
What is the function of the tissues in the epidural space?
They pad the spinal cord.
What is the role of spinal nerves?
They branch to various body parts and connect them with the CNS.
What are the two main types of cells in the nervous system?
Neurons and neuroglia.
What does the central nervous system (CNS) consist of?
The brain and spinal cord.
Where are potassium (K+) ions found in higher concentration?
In the intracellular region of the neuron.
What are the layered membranes that protect the brain and spinal cord called?
Meninges.
What is the function of motor neurons?
To carry impulses from the central nervous system to effectors.
What is the singular form of meninges?
Meninx.
What are effectors in the nervous system?
Muscles or glands that respond to motor neuron impulses.
What types of cells can take up neurotransmitters besides the presynaptic neuron?
Nearby neurons or neuroglia.
What do the concentration gradients of K+ and Na+ ions set the stage for?
For a neuron to be excited and rapidly return to rest.
What role does CSF play in nutrient and waste exchange?
It serves as a medium for minor exchange of nutrients and waste products between the blood and adjacent nervous tissue.
What percentage of cells in the human nervous system are neurons?
About 20%.
How do neurons communicate with each other?
Through synapses using neurotransmitters.
What is the role of synapses in the nervous system?
Facilitating communication between neurons and generating action potentials.
What is an action potential also known as?
A nerve impulse.
What could happen if the brain were exposed to chemical variations?
Neurons would fire uncontrollably.
What is the primary function of sensory neurons?
To transmit sensory information from receptors to the central nervous system.
What protective structures surround the brain and spinal cord?
Meninges and cerebrospinal fluid.
Which neurotransmitter is known for its role in inhibiting neuronal excitability?
Gamma aminobutyric acid (GABA).
What do satellite cells do?
They provide support and nutrients to neurons in the peripheral nervous system.
What separates the dura mater from the vertebrae?
An epidural space.
What forms the outer layer of the spinal cord?
White matter, formed by myelinated and unmyelinated axons.
What do the segments of the spinal cord give rise to?
A pair of spinal nerves.
What is an action potential?
A rapid transitory and propagating change in the membrane potential, first positive, then negative, returning to resting potential.
What is the resting membrane potential of a neuron?
-70 mV (millivolts).
What is produced by ependymal cells?
Cerebrospinal fluid (CSF).
What are sensory nerves responsible for?
Conducting impulses to the brain or spinal cord.
What happens when a threshold stimulus is received?
Na+ channels in the trigger zone of the axon open.
What do motor nerves do?
Conduct impulses to muscles or glands.
What occurs when Na+ channels open in the axon?
Na+ diffuses inward, depolarizing the axon membrane.
How does CSF maintain homeostasis?
By regulating the pH, which affects pulmonary ventilation and cerebral blood flow.
What are the main structures of the human brain?
Cerebrum, cerebellum, and brainstem.
Which types of cells can generate an action potential?
Only neurons and muscle cells.
How does CSF help in clearing waste products from the brain?
Waste products produced by the brain move into the CSF and can be absorbed into the bloodstream.
What are motor functions used for in the CNS?
To act on decisions by stimulating muscles to contract and glands to secrete.
What are motor fibers also known as?
Efferent fibers.
What role do astrocytes play in the CNS?
They support neurons and maintain the blood-brain barrier.
How many pairs of spinal nerves are part of the peripheral nervous system?
31 pairs.
What is the role of Schwann cells in the PNS?
To provide myelination to peripheral nerve fibers.
Which compounds can diffuse across the BBB?
O2, CO2, ammonia, and lipids.
What is the role of microglia?
To act as immune cells in the central nervous system.
What determines whether an action potential is triggered in a postsynaptic neuron?
If more excitatory than inhibitory neurotransmitters are released.
What is convergence in neuronal pools?
Convergence is when a single neuron receives input from two or more incoming axons, allowing impulses from different sources to have an additive effect.
What is the overall effect of neurotransmitter activity in the nervous system?
A complex combination of excitation and inhibition.
How do neurons vary?
They vary in sizes and shapes.
What is the term for the jumping of an impulse from node to node?
Saltatory conduction.
What happens to a released neurotransmitter in the synaptic cleft?
It is either decomposed or removed.
What is the role of sensory neurons?
To transmit sensory input to the central nervous system.
What are nerves composed of?
Bundles of axons located in the PNS.
What role does myelin sheath play in the regeneration of damaged axons?
It helps damaged axons of the peripheral nervous system regenerate.
What is the primary function of neurons?
To transmit electrical signals throughout the nervous system.
What are the main components of the human brain?
Cerebrum, cerebellum, and brainstem.
How does CSF support the brain?
By providing buoyancy, keeping the brain 'floating' in the cranial cavity.
What is the spinal cord's primary function?
Transmits signals between the brain and the rest of the body.
What is one function of neuroglia in the CNS?
To maintain homeostasis and provide support for neurons.
Which publisher released the 8th edition of 'Human Biology' by Johnson?
Pearson.
What is the function of myelin produced by certain neuroglia?
To insulate axons and increase the speed of signal transmission.
What do motor neurons do?
Conduct impulses out of the brain or spinal cord to effectors.
How do neurons communicate within the body?
By conducting impulses.
What type of neuron carries signals toward the CNS?
Sensory neurons.
What are the main types of neurons in the nervous system?
Sensory neurons, motor neurons, and interneurons.
What are the branches of the autonomic nervous system?
Sympathetic and parasympathetic systems.
What app provides a visible body anatomy and physiology resource?
Visible Body Anatomy and Physiology 2019.
How does water-soluble glucose cross the BBB?
By active transport.
What do oligodendrocytes do?
They form the myelin sheath around CNS axons.
What role do microglia play in monitoring neurons?
They monitor the health of nearby neurons.
How many segments does the spinal cord consist of?
31 segments.
What types of debris do microglia dispose of?
Dead brain cells and bacteria.
What are the main structures of the human brain?
Cerebrum, cerebellum, and brainstem.
What is the primary function of the cerebrum?
Responsible for higher brain functions such as thought and action.
What cannot cross the synaptic cleft?
Nerve impulse.
What role does the cerebellum play in the brain?
Coordinates voluntary movements and balance.
What are the main components of the spinal cord?
Gray matter and white matter.
What are interneurons also known as?
Association neurons.
What occurs when effectors are stimulated?
Muscles contract and glands secrete.
What role do neuroglia play in the nervous system?
They support and protect neurons.
What is the role of white matter in the spinal cord?
To facilitate communication between different parts of the nervous system through myelinated axons.
Where do ependymal cells line in the spinal cord?
The central canal.
What structures are included in the central nervous system (CNS)?
The human brain and spinal cord.
What is the significance of the cerebellum?
It is responsible for coordination and balance.
How many pairs of spinal nerves are in the lumbar region?
5 pairs (L1 to L5).
What occurs when K+ channels open in the axon?
K+ diffuses outward, repolarizing the axon membrane.
What type of neurons are motor neurons?
Efferent neurons.
What do sensory nerves contain?
Only sensory fibers.
What is the function of microglia?
To act as the immune defense in the CNS.
What do mixed nerves contain?
Both sensory and motor fibers.
Which database is mentioned for nursing resources?
Clinical Key (Nursing).
How does convergence affect neuronal function?
It allows impulses arriving from different sources to combine, potentially enhancing the overall response of the neuron.
What is the role of neurotransmitters in synaptic transmission?
They carry out synaptic transmission by diffusing across the synaptic cleft.
Where does the brain lie?
In the cranial cavity of the skull.
What happens if the net effect is excitatory but subthreshold?
An impulse is not triggered.
Where does the spinal cord occupy?
The vertebral canal in the vertebral column.
Where are synaptic vesicles located?
In the synaptic knobs at the end of the axon.
Which enzyme breaks down acetylcholine?
Acetylcholinesterase.
What is the function of acetylcholine?
It stimulates skeletal muscle contractions.
What is the process called when neurotransmitters are transported back into the synaptic knob?
Reuptake.
What are monoamines and give examples?
Monoamines are neurotransmitters formed from modified amino acids, examples include epinephrine, norepinephrine, dopamine, and serotonin.
What are the six types of neuroglia (glial cells)?
Oligodendrocytes, astrocytes, ependymal cells, microglia, Schwann cells, and satellite cells.
How does a baby's brain develop?
Through a process of growth and neural connections formation.
What functions are integrated and processed in the CNS?
Conscious or subconscious decisions such as thoughts, emotions, and memories.
Which types of neuroglia are found in the Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)?
Schwann cells and satellite cells.
What is the ability of neurons to respond to a stimulus called?
Electrical excitability.
What is the function of the brainstem?
Controls basic life functions such as breathing, heartbeat, and blood pressure.
Name a common neurotransmitter involved in muscle activation.
Acetylcholine.
Where do some interneurons aggregate?
In specialized masses of nervous tissue called nuclei within the CNS.
What role do motor neurons play?
They carry signals from the central nervous system to muscles and glands.
What are neuroglia?
Supportive cells in the nervous system that assist neurons.
What surrounds the organs of the Central Nervous System (CNS)?
Bones, membranes, and fluid.
What occurs if the net effect of inputs to a neuron is excitatory and reaches the threshold?
An outgoing impulse is triggered.
What is the primary function of neurons?
To transmit electrical signals throughout the nervous system.
What is cerebrospinal fluid (CSF)?
A clear, colorless liquid composed primarily of water and small amounts of glucose, proteins, lactic acid, urea, and electrolytes.
What happens when an impulse reaches the synaptic knob of a presynaptic neuron?
Synaptic vesicles release neurotransmitter molecules by exocytosis.
What do neurotransmitter molecules do after being released?
They diffuse across the synaptic cleft and react with specific receptors on the postsynaptic cell membrane.
What are the two divisions of the nervous system?
Central Nervous System (CNS) and Peripheral Nervous System (PNS).
What does the peripheral nervous system (PNS) include?
Cranial and spinal nerves that connect the CNS to other body parts.
What is a stimulus in the context of the nervous system?
A change in the environment that elicits a response.
What is the function of the cerebrum?
Responsible for higher brain functions such as thought, action, and emotion.
What is the title of the 11th edition textbook by Marieb and Hoehn?
Human Anatomy & Physiology.
What type of neuron carries signals away from the CNS?
Motor neurons.
What process do neurotransmitters facilitate for brain functions?
Chemical synaptic transmission.
What do motor impulses control?
Muscle contraction and the secretions of glands.
What do motor nerves contain?
Only motor fibers.
What neurotransmitter is associated with pleasure and reward?
Dopamine.
What neurotransmitter is involved in the immune response and acts as a neurotransmitter?
Histamine.
Do proteins and most antibiotic drugs pass from blood to brain tissue?
No, they do not pass.
What is the primary function of white matter in the spinal cord?
To pass information up and down the spinal cord.
Where are most neurotransmitter molecules synthesized?
In the cytoplasm of the synaptic knobs.
What is the primary function of the blood-brain barrier?
To protect the brain from harmful substances while allowing essential nutrients to pass.
What does the neuron membrane maintain at rest?
Resting potential.
What is the function of cerebrospinal fluid (CSF)?
It protects and nourishes the brain and spinal cord.
What is gray matter primarily composed of?
Neuron cell bodies and unmyelinated axons.
How many neurons are in the human spinal cord?
Approximately 100 million neurons.
What occurs when sodium channels open during an action potential?
The charge rapidly rises to about +30 mV.
How does the spinal cord connect to the brain?
Through the brainstem.
What is another term for an axon?
Nerve fiber.
What is the protective structure surrounding the spinal cord?
The vertebral column (spine).
What role does the cerebellum play in the brain?
Coordinates voluntary movements and maintains posture and balance.
What is the function of oligodendrocytes?
To provide support and insulation to axons in the CNS.
What is the smallest region of the vertebral column?
Coccygeal region (1 pair).
What are the main components of the spinal cord?
Cervical, thoracic, lumbar, sacral, and coccygeal regions.
What is the primary function of the spinal cord?
Transmits signals between the brain and the rest of the body.
Which neurotransmitter is known for regulating mood and sleep?
Serotonin.
Which substances cross the BBB very slowly?
Urea and most ions.
What part of the brain controls vital functions such as breathing and heart rate?
The brainstem.
Which edition of 'Essentials of Human Anatomy & Physiology' was published by Marieb in 2015?
11th edition.
What is the primary function of the Blood-Brain Barrier (BBB)?
To serve as a protective mechanism for the brain.
What does the action potential cause in the adjacent axon membrane?
An electric current that stimulates it.
What occurs along the axon as a result of action potentials?
A series of action potentials occurs (propagation).
How are nerve fibers organized within a nerve?
Bundled within layers of connective tissue.
What are endorphins known for?
Their role in pain relief and pleasure.
What is the function of ependymal cells?
To line the ventricles of the brain and produce cerebrospinal fluid.
What is the primary focus of the introduction to the nervous system?
Understanding the nervous system in human beings.
