(3) Maintenance of Life _Part II

Created by nachelle

p.40

What is the FDA regulation regarding trans fat labeling?

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p.40

The FDA allows companies to label a product as having 0 grams of trans fat even if it contains up to 0.5 grams of trans fat.

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Health Implications of Saturated and Unsaturated F...

What is the FDA regulation regarding trans fat labeling?

The FDA allows companies to label a product as having 0 grams of trans fat even if it contains up to 0.5 grams of trans fat.

p.40
Health Implications of Saturated and Unsaturated F...

What types of food products were found to most likely still contain trans fats?

Cookies and crackers were the most likely food products to still contain trans fats.

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Health Implications of Saturated and Unsaturated F...

What health risks are associated with consuming low levels of trans fats?

Even low levels of trans fats could pose a health risk, as there is no benefit to consuming them and they are not healthy for anyone.

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Health Implications of Saturated and Unsaturated F...

What health risk is associated with the high levels of trans fats found in baked goods in Hong Kong?

The high levels of trans fats in baked goods pose a risk of heart disease.

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Health Implications of Saturated and Unsaturated F...

What types of baked goods in Hong Kong were found to contain dangerously high levels of trans fats?

The baked goods include puff pastries and cookies.

p.1
Definition of Organic Molecules

What does the term 'organic' refer to in the context of organic molecules?

The term 'organic' refers to a molecule that contains carbon (C) and hydrogen (H), and is usually associated with living things.

p.2
Macromolecules and Their Formation

What do macromolecules have in common regarding their structure?

Macromolecules are synthesized from basic building blocks of subunits and most of them exist as polymers, except for lipids which do not form polymers.

p.3
Macromolecules and Their Formation

What is the process called that involves the removal of a water molecule to form a new bond during macromolecule synthesis?

The process is called dehydration synthesis or condensation reaction. It is catalyzed by a polymerase enzyme.

p.3
Macromolecules and Their Formation

What is the significance of dehydration reactions in the formation of macromolecules?

Dehydration reactions are significant because they allow for the linking of monomers to form polymers, which are essential for storing energy and building complex structures in biological systems.

p.4
Breakdown of Macromolecules

What is hydrolysis in the context of macromolecules?

Hydrolysis is the process of splitting a polymer by adding water to a covalent bond, which is catalyzed by a hydrolase enzyme. This process results in the breaking of the bond between monomers, allowing for the release of energy that can be used to build other molecules.

p.4
Breakdown of Macromolecules

What role does water play in the hydrolysis of polymers?

In hydrolysis, a water molecule is added to a covalent bond in a polymer, which facilitates the breaking of that bond, resulting in the separation of the polymer into its monomer components.

p.4
Breakdown of Macromolecules

What is the significance of hydrolysis in biological systems?

Hydrolysis is significant in biological systems as it allows for the breakdown of complex macromolecules into simpler monomers, releasing energy that can be utilized for various cellular processes and building new molecules.

p.5
Organic Nature of Macromolecules

What are the four main types of carbon compounds mentioned in the organic nature of macromolecules?

The four main types of carbon compounds are Carbohydrates, Lipids, Nucleic acids, and Proteins.

p.5
Organic Nature of Macromolecules

What do carbohydrates consist of?

MacromoleculeSubunits/ComponentsElements Present
CarbohydratesSugars, StarchesCarbon, Hydrogen, Oxygen
LipidsFats, OilsCarbon, Hydrogen, Oxygen
Nucleic AcidsNucleotidesC, H, O, N, P
ProteinsAmino AcidsC, H, O, N
p.5
Organic Nature of Macromolecules

What do lipids consist of?

MacromoleculeSubunits/ComponentsElements Present
CarbohydratesSugars, StarchesCarbon, Hydrogen, Oxygen
LipidsFats, OilsCarbon, Hydrogen, Oxygen
Nucleic AcidsNucleotidesC, H, O, N, P
ProteinsAmino AcidsC, H, O, N
p.5
Organic Nature of Macromolecules

What are nucleic acids made of?

MacromoleculeSubunits/ComponentsElements Present
CarbohydratesSugars, StarchesCarbon, Hydrogen, Oxygen
LipidsFats, OilsCarbon, Hydrogen, Oxygen
Nucleic AcidsNucleotidesC, H, O, N, P
ProteinsAmino AcidsC, H, O, N
p.5
Organic Nature of Macromolecules

What do proteins consist of?

MacromoleculeSubunits/ComponentsElements Present
CarbohydratesSugars, StarchesCarbon, Hydrogen, Oxygen
LipidsFats, OilsCarbon, Hydrogen, Oxygen
Nucleic AcidsNucleotidesC, H, O, N, P
ProteinsAmino AcidsC, H, O, N
p.6
Definition of Organic Molecules

Which statement concerning the molecules of life is incorrect?

The incorrect statement is: 4. All of them can be made in absence of enzymes. Enzymes are crucial for the synthesis and breakdown of biological molecules.

p.7
Definition of Organic Molecules

What is the characteristic atomic grouping of carbohydrates?

Carbohydrates are characterized by the presence of the atomic grouping H-C-OH, which includes hydrogen, carbon, and hydroxyl groups.

p.7
Definition of Organic Molecules

What is the ratio of hydrogen to oxygen atoms in carbohydrates, and what does this ratio signify?

The ratio of hydrogen atoms (H) to oxygen atoms (O) in carbohydrates is approximately 2:1, which is the same as the ratio in water, indicating their hydrophilic nature.

p.7
Nutritional Role of Carbohydrates

What is the primary function of carbohydrates in biological systems?

Carbohydrates serve as a source of quick and short-term energy storage in biological systems.

p.8
Types of Carbohydrates: Monosaccharides, Disacchar...

What is a monosaccharide and what is its significance in carbohydrates?

A monosaccharide is a carbohydrate with a low number of carbon atoms, typically ranging from 5 to 7. They serve as the building blocks of larger carbohydrates and can be found in nature or synthesized. The most common monosaccharide is glucose (C6H12O6).

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Types of Carbohydrates: Monosaccharides, Disacchar...

What are disaccharides and how are they formed?

Disaccharides are formed by the joining of two monosaccharides through a glycosidic linkage. The specific type of disaccharide created can vary based on the placement and combination of the bonds between the monosaccharides.

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Types of Carbohydrates: Monosaccharides, Disacchar...

What is the molecular formula of sucrose?

The molecular formula of sucrose is C12H22O11.

p.9
Types of Carbohydrates: Monosaccharides, Disacchar...

What is the significance of the glycosidic bond in disaccharides?

The glycosidic bond in disaccharides is significant because it determines the structure and properties of the disaccharide, influencing how the sugars interact and their biological functions.

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Types of Carbohydrates: Monosaccharides, Disacchar...

What are polysaccharides and how are they formed?

Polysaccharides are a group of complex carbohydrates made up of many molecules of monosaccharides. They are formed through glycosidic bonds, which are the bonds that hold the separated monosaccharides together.

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Nutritional Role of Carbohydrates

What is the taste characteristic of polysaccharides?

Polysaccharides are not sweet in taste, distinguishing them from simpler carbohydrates like monosaccharides and disaccharides.

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Nutritional Role of Carbohydrates

What are carbohydrates commonly referred to as?

Carbohydrates can be referred to as saccharides.

p.11
Types of Carbohydrates: Monosaccharides, Disacchar...

How are carbohydrates classified?

Carbohydrates are classified as simple or complex sugars.

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Nutritional Role of Carbohydrates

What is the primary role of carbohydrates in nutrition?

Carbohydrates serve as an essential source of short-term energy.

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Nutritional Role of Carbohydrates

Are carbohydrates considered essential food sources nutritionally?

Nutritionally, carbohydrates are not essential food sources, but they provide energy (calories).

p.12
Types of Carbohydrates: Monosaccharides, Disacchar...

What are simple carbohydrates and where can they be found?

Simple carbohydrates are found in foods such as fruits, milk, and vegetables. They include refined sugar products like cake and candy, which provide energy but lack essential vitamins, minerals, and fiber.

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Types of Carbohydrates: Monosaccharides, Disacchar...

What are complex carbohydrates and what benefits do they provide?

Complex carbohydrates provide vitamins, minerals, and fiber. They are found in foods such as breads, legumes, rice, pasta, and starchy vegetables.

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Types of Carbohydrates: Monosaccharides, Disacchar...

What are the main types of simple carbohydrates?

Carbohydrate TypeExamples
SimpleGlucose, Fructose, Galactose
ComplexStarch, Glycogen, Cellulose
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Types of Carbohydrates: Monosaccharides, Disacchar...

What are the main types of complex carbohydrates?

Carbohydrate TypeExamples
SimpleGlucose, Fructose, Galactose
ComplexStarch, Glycogen, Cellulose
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Breakdown of Macromolecules

What are the end products of carbohydrate digestion for Amylose, Amylopectin, and Glycogen?

CarbohydrateEnd Product
AmyloseGlucose
AmylopectinGlucose
GlycogenGlucose
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Breakdown of Macromolecules

Which extracellular enzyme is responsible for the digestion of Amylose, Amylopectin, and Glycogen?

The extracellular enzyme responsible for the digestion of Amylose, Amylopectin, and Glycogen is α Amylase.

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Breakdown of Macromolecules

What are the end products of Sucrose digestion?

The end products of Sucrose digestion are Glucose and Fructose.

p.13
Breakdown of Macromolecules

What enzyme is used to digest Lactose and what are its end products?

Lactose is digested by Lactase, resulting in the end products Glucose and Galactose.

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Breakdown of Macromolecules

What is the role of Trehalase in carbohydrate digestion?

Trehalase is the enzyme that digests Trehalose, resulting in the end product Glucose.

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Types of Carbohydrates: Monosaccharides, Disacchar...

What are the food sources of glucose and fructose?

MonosaccharideFood Sources
GlucoseCorn, rice, table sugar
FructoseHoney, berries, melons, tree fruits/juices, cane, beets
p.14
Types of Carbohydrates: Monosaccharides, Disacchar...

What is galactose and where can it be found?

Galactose is a nutritive sweetener found in:

  • Dairy products
  • Sugar beets
  • It is also synthesized in the body and present in breastmilk.
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Nutritional Role of Carbohydrates

What is the role of disaccharidases in the digestion of sucrose, lactose, and maltose?

Disaccharidases are enzymes that are required for the absorption and digestion of disaccharides such as sucrose, lactose, and maltose. They break down these sugars into their monosaccharide components, allowing for proper absorption in the intestine.

p.15
Types of Carbohydrates: Monosaccharides, Disacchar...

What are the food sources of sucrose, lactose, and maltose?

DisaccharideFood Sources
SucroseSugar cane, sugar beets
LactoseMilk, milk products, breastmilk
MaltoseGerminating grains (e.g., barley), product of starch digestion
p.15
Nutritional Role of Carbohydrates

How does the lactose content in human milk compare to cow's milk?

Human milk has higher concentrations of lactose than cow's milk, which contributes to its sweeter taste.

p.15
Types of Carbohydrates: Monosaccharides, Disacchar...

What is maltose and how is it formed?

Maltose, known as malt sugar, is a disaccharide formed from two glucose molecules. The majority of maltose in the intestine comes from the digestion of starch.

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Types of Carbohydrates: Monosaccharides, Disacchar...

What is the role of starch in plants?

Starch serves as a storage molecule in plants, allowing them to store energy for later use.

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Types of Carbohydrates: Monosaccharides, Disacchar...

What is glycogen and its function in animals?

Glycogen is a storage molecule in animals, primarily found in the liver and muscles, where it stores energy that can be quickly mobilized when needed.

p.16
Types of Carbohydrates: Monosaccharides, Disacchar...

What is cellulose and its significance in plants?

Cellulose is a major component of the plant cell wall, providing structural support and rigidity to plant cells.

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Types of Carbohydrates: Monosaccharides, Disacchar...

What is starch and what are its main components?

Starch is a storage polysaccharide of plants that consists entirely of glucose monomers.

p.17
Nutritional Role of Carbohydrates

Where do plants store surplus starch?

Plants store surplus starch as granules within chloroplasts and other plastids.

p.17
Structure and Functionality of Fats

What are the two forms of starch and how do they differ in structure?

Form of StarchStructure
AmyloseHelical, non-branched
AmylopectinBranched
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Structure and Functionality of Fats

What is glycogen and where is it primarily stored in animals?

Glycogen is a storage polysaccharide in animals, primarily stored in the liver and muscle cells.

p.18
Structure and Functionality of Fats

How does the structure of glycogen compare to that of amylopectin?

Glycogen consists of branched polymers of glucose, similar to amylopectin found in plants.

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Types of Carbohydrates: Monosaccharides, Disacchar...

What is the primary polysaccharide found in plants and what are its two main components?

Primary PolysaccharideMain Components
StarchAmylopectin, Amylose
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Types of Carbohydrates: Monosaccharides, Disacchar...

What is the primary polysaccharide found in animals and where is it stored?

Primary PolysaccharideStorage Locations
GlycogenLiver, muscle tissues
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Structure and Functionality of Fats

What is the primary role of polysaccharide cellulose in plants?

Polysaccharide cellulose is primarily found in plant cell walls, providing structural support and rigidity.

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Structure and Functionality of Fats

How do the linkages in cellulose differ from those in starch or glycogen?

The glucose units in cellulose are joined by a slightly different type of linkage compared to the linkages in starch or glycogen.

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Structure and Functionality of Fats

Why can't cellulose be digested by humans?

Cellulose cannot be digested by humans due to the specific type of linkage between glucose units, which human digestive enzymes cannot break down.

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Nutritional Role of Carbohydrates

Why can we use potatoes as a food source but not wood?

Potatoes can be used as a food source because they contain starch, which our bodies can break down into glucose. In contrast, wood contains cellulose, which our bodies cannot digest due to the absence of the enzyme cellulase needed to break the bonds between glucose molecules in cellulose.

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Types of Carbohydrates: Monosaccharides, Disacchar...

Which statement about simple and complex sugars is incorrect?

Complex sugars are mainly found in processed or refined food is incorrect; complex sugars are typically found in whole foods like grains, legumes, and vegetables.

p.23
Nutritional Role of Carbohydrates

What are the main components of the low-carb food pyramid?

The low-carb food pyramid consists of the following main components:

  1. Fibrous Fruits: Kiwi, berries, and melon
  2. Fats and Oils: Butter and olive oil
  3. Nuts
  4. Fibrous Vegetables: Lettuce, cucumbers, tomatoes, and broccoli
  5. Eggs and Cheese
  6. Proteins: Lobster, roast chicken, ham, and chicken drumsticks
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Nutritional Role of Carbohydrates

What is the primary mechanism by which a low-carb diet promotes weight loss?

A low-carb diet reprograms the body to burn fat for energy first, followed by carbohydrates.

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Nutritional Role of Carbohydrates

What types of foods are typically included in a low-carb diet?

Low-carb dieters can eat foods rich in protein such as:

  1. Meats
  2. Poultry
  3. Fish
  4. Eggs
  5. Vegetable oils
  6. Low-carb vegetables (e.g., salad greens)
  7. Low-carb fruits (e.g., berries, melon)
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Nutritional Role of Carbohydrates

How quickly can individuals expect to see results from a low-carb diet?

Individuals can see results from a low-carb diet within the first 1-2 weeks.

p.25
Nutritional Role of Carbohydrates

What is the effect of a low-carb diet on water weight?

A low-carb diet leads to a loss of water weight because carbohydrates are stored in the body with water molecules. When glycogen is used for energy, it releases water, creating a false impression of weight loss.

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Nutritional Role of Carbohydrates

How does a low-carb diet affect feelings of fullness?

Low-carb diets are typically higher in fats and proteins, which take longer to digest, thereby increasing the feeling of fullness and reducing hunger.

p.25
Nutritional Role of Carbohydrates

What is the impact of a low-carb diet on overall calorie intake?

Low-carb diets often lead to reduced overall calorie intake as they limit the variety of food consumption, resulting in a significant decrease in calorie intake.

p.26
Health Implications of Saturated and Unsaturated F...

What are the health risks associated with a high animal protein diet?

A high animal protein diet can lead to:

  1. Loss of calcium, increasing the risk of osteoporosis.
  2. High levels of uric acid, raising the risk of gout.
  3. Increased risk of kidney disease in individuals already at risk, such as those with diabetes or high blood pressure.
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Health Implications of Saturated and Unsaturated F...

What symptoms may result from low carbohydrate diets?

Low carbohydrate diets can cause:

  • Dizziness, possibly due to dehydration.
  • Constipation, due to low fiber intake.
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Nutritional Role of Carbohydrates

What is the primary macronutrient composition of the ketogenic diet?

The ketogenic diet primarily consists of 75% fats, 20% protein, and 5% carbohydrates.

p.27
Nutritional Role of Carbohydrates

What is the main metabolic state achieved by following a ketogenic diet?

The main metabolic state achieved by following a ketogenic diet is ketosis, where the body breaks down protein and fat for energy instead of carbohydrates.

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Nutritional Role of Carbohydrates

What is the intended duration and purpose of the ketogenic diet?

The ketogenic diet is supposed to be a short-term diet focused on weight loss.

p.27
Nutritional Role of Carbohydrates

What is a significant concern regarding the health benefits of the ketogenic diet?

There is a lack of substantial evidence on the health benefits of the ketogenic diet.

p.28
Types of Carbohydrates: Monosaccharides, Disacchar...

Which of the following are starch?

  1. Amylose and amylopectin are both forms of starch. Amylase is an enzyme that breaks down starch, while cellulose is a structural component of plant cell walls and not a starch. Amylopactase is not a recognized term in this context.
p.29
Nutritional Role of Carbohydrates

Which statement about low-carb diets is INCORRECT?

Bread will replace rice as the major calorie intake is INCORRECT; low-carb diets typically reduce carbohydrate intake, including bread and rice.

p.30
Characteristics and Types of Lipids

What is a unifying feature of lipids?

Lipids have little or no affinity for water, making them hydrophobic due to their composition of hydrocarbons that form non-polar covalent bonds.

p.30
Characteristics and Types of Lipids

Why are lipids considered hydrophobic?

Lipids are considered hydrophobic because they consist mostly of hydrocarbons, which form non-polar covalent bonds, resulting in little or no affinity for water.

p.30
Characteristics and Types of Lipids

What are the most biologically important types of lipids?

The most biologically important lipids are fats, phospholipids, and steroids.

p.30
Characteristics and Types of Lipids

Do lipids form polymers?

No, lipids are the one class of large biological molecules that do not form polymers.

p.31
Characteristics and Types of Lipids

What are the two types of smaller molecules that fats are constructed from?

Fats are constructed from glycerol and fatty acids.

p.31
Characteristics and Types of Lipids

What is the structure of glycerol?

Glycerol is a three-carbon alcohol with a hydroxyl group attached to each carbon.

p.31
Characteristics and Types of Lipids

What is a fatty acid composed of?

A fatty acid consists of a carboxyl group attached to a long carbon skeleton.

p.31
Characteristics and Types of Lipids

What is formed when three fatty acids are joined to glycerol?

When three fatty acids are joined to glycerol, they create a triacylglycerol, also known as a triglyceride.

p.32
Structure and Functionality of Fats

What is the process of forming a triglyceride from glycerol and fatty acids called?

The process is called dehydration synthesis, which involves the removal of water molecules to form ester linkages between glycerol and fatty acids.

p.32
Structure and Functionality of Fats

What are the components that make up a triglyceride molecule?

A triglyceride molecule is composed of one glycerol molecule and three fatty acid molecules linked together through ester bonds.

p.32
Structure and Functionality of Fats

What type of bond is formed between glycerol and fatty acids in triglycerides?

The bond formed between glycerol and fatty acids in triglycerides is called an ester linkage.

p.32
Structure and Functionality of Fats

What is the significance of the dehydration reactions in triglyceride formation?

The dehydration reactions are significant because they facilitate the formation of ester linkages, which are essential for creating the triglyceride structure from glycerol and fatty acids.

p.33
Characteristics and Types of Lipids

What is the main difference between saturated and unsaturated fatty acids?

Saturated fatty acids have the maximum number of hydrogen atoms possible and no double bonds, while unsaturated fatty acids contain one or more double bonds.

p.34
Health Implications of Saturated and Unsaturated F...

What are the characteristics of saturated fats compared to unsaturated fats?

CharacteristicSaturated FatsUnsaturated Fats
Fatty Acid TypeSaturated fatty acidsUnsaturated fatty acids
State at Room TempSolidLiquid
Common SourcesMost animal fatsUsually plant and fish fats
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Health Implications of Saturated and Unsaturated F...

How does a diet rich in saturated fats affect cardiovascular health?

A diet rich in saturated fats may contribute to cardiovascular disease through the formation of plaque deposits in the arteries.

p.35
Characteristics and Types of Lipids

Why are unsaturated fats liquid at room temperature?

Unsaturated fats are liquid at room temperature due to the presence of one or more double bonds in their fatty acid chains. These double bonds create kinks in the structure, preventing the molecules from packing closely together. This loose arrangement results in a lower melting point compared to saturated fats, which have no double bonds and can pack tightly, making them solid at room temperature.

p.36
Characteristics and Types of Lipids

What is the structural difference between saturated and unsaturated fatty acids?

Saturated fatty acids have no double bonds between carbon atoms, resulting in a straight chain structure. In contrast, unsaturated fatty acids contain one or more double bonds, causing a bend in the chain due to the presence of a cis double bond.

p.36
Characteristics and Types of Lipids

What is the significance of the cis double bond in unsaturated fatty acids?

The cis double bond in unsaturated fatty acids causes a bending in the molecular structure, which affects the physical properties of the fat, such as its melting point and fluidity.

p.37
Health Implications of Saturated and Unsaturated F...

What is the process of hydrogenation and what effect does it have on fats?

Hydrogenation is the process of converting unsaturated fats to saturated fats by adding hydrogen. This process can lead to the formation of trans fats when vegetable oils are partially hydrogenated, resulting in unsaturated fats with trans double bonds.

p.37
Health Implications of Saturated and Unsaturated F...

How do trans fats differ from saturated fats in terms of their impact on cardiovascular disease?

Trans fats may contribute more to cardiovascular disease than saturated fats, despite both being types of fats. The presence of trans double bonds in trans fats is associated with increased health risks.

p.38
Health Implications of Saturated and Unsaturated F...

What is the legal limit for trans fats in processed food set by the EU from 2021?

The legal limit for trans fats in processed food set by the EU from 2021 is 2 g per 100 g of fat.

p.38
Health Implications of Saturated and Unsaturated F...

What are trans fatty acids (TFAs) and where do they occur naturally?

Trans fatty acids (TFAs) occur naturally in small amounts in certain foods such as meat and cheese.

p.38
Health Implications of Saturated and Unsaturated F...

What is the primary public health risk associated with trans fats?

The primary public health risk associated with trans fats is related to industrial or artificial trans fats, which are produced by partially hydrogenating vegetable oils and are linked to non-communicable diseases such as heart disease and stroke.

p.38
Health Implications of Saturated and Unsaturated F...

What health issues are associated with high levels of trans fat consumption?

High levels of trans fat consumption are associated with non-communicable diseases such as heart disease, stroke, and a higher risk of developing type 2 diabetes.

p.39
Health Implications of Saturated and Unsaturated F...

What are the health risks associated with industrially produced trans fats?

Industrially produced trans fats are associated with an increased risk of heart disease.

p.39
Health Implications of Saturated and Unsaturated F...

What is the goal set by WHO and its Member States regarding trans fats?

The goal set by WHO and its Member States is to eliminate industrially produced trans fats from the food supply by 2023.

p.39
Health Implications of Saturated and Unsaturated F...

Which regions are taking measures to eliminate trans fats?

The Eurasian Economic Union, the European Union, and individual countries in the Region are taking measures to eliminate trans fats.

p.39
Health Implications of Saturated and Unsaturated F...

What progress has been made towards eliminating trans fats in the WHO Europe Region?

Many countries in the Region have already taken strong action, moving closer to becoming the first WHO region in the world to become trans-fat free.

p.40
Health Implications of Saturated and Unsaturated F...

What percentage of food products containing trans fats still carry a 'zero gram' label?

About 84 percent of food products that contain trans fats still carry a 'zero gram' label.

p.41
Health Implications of Saturated and Unsaturated F...

What does the consumer watchdog report indicate about the unsaturated fats in certain baked goods in Hong Kong?

The report indicates that these baked goods contain unsaturated fats above the recommended daily consumption.

p.42
Characteristics and Types of Lipids

What are the structural roles of lipids in biological systems?

Lipids serve several structural roles, including:

  1. Cell Membrane Composition: Lipids and phospholipids are essential components of cell membranes, providing structural integrity and fluidity.
  2. Protective Wax Cuticle: They form a protective wax cuticle on the outside of leaves, helping to prevent water loss.
  3. Heat Insulation: In animals, lipids provide heat insulation, helping to maintain body temperature.
  4. Organ Protection: Lipids protect internal organs in animals by providing cushioning and support.
p.44
Characteristics and Types of Lipids

What are the main components of a phospholipid?

A phospholipid consists of two fatty acids, a phosphate group, and a glycerol backbone.

p.44
Characteristics and Types of Lipids

What is the nature of the fatty acid tails and the phosphate head in a phospholipid?

The two fatty acid tails are hydrophobic (water-repelling), while the phosphate group and its attachments form a hydrophilic head (water-attracting).

p.45
Structure and Functionality of Fats

What happens to phospholipids when they are added to water?

Phospholipids self-assemble into a bilayer, with the hydrophobic tails pointing toward the interior and the hydrophilic heads facing outward toward the water.

p.45
Structure and Functionality of Fats

What is the significance of the bilayer arrangement of phospholipids in cell membranes?

The bilayer arrangement of phospholipids is crucial as it forms the major component of all cell membranes, providing a barrier that separates the interior of the cell from the external environment.

p.46
Role of Steroids and Hormones in the Body

What is the basic structure of steroids?

Steroids are characterized by a carbon skeleton consisting of four fused rings, which include three cyclohexane rings and one cyclopentane ring.

p.46
Role of Steroids and Hormones in the Body

What role does cholesterol play in animal cells?

Cholesterol is an important steroid that serves as a component in animal cell membranes.

p.46
Health Implications of Saturated and Unsaturated F...

What are the health implications of high cholesterol levels in the blood?

High levels of cholesterol in the blood may contribute to cardiovascular disease.

p.46
Role of Steroids and Hormones in the Body

Name two essential sex hormones that are classified as steroids.

The two essential sex hormones that are classified as steroids are testosterone and estradiol.

p.47
Health Implications of Saturated and Unsaturated F...

What is the role of HDL and LDL in cholesterol management?

HDL (High-Density Lipoprotein) helps to transport and remove bad cholesterol from the bloodstream, while LDL (Low-Density Lipoprotein) is considered bad cholesterol as it can lead to plaque build-up and atherosclerosis.

p.47
Health Implications of Saturated and Unsaturated F...

What are the sources of cholesterol in the bloodstream?

In the bloodstream, 75% of cholesterol is made by our body, while 25% comes from food sources, particularly animal products which contain high levels of cholesterol.

p.47
Health Implications of Saturated and Unsaturated F...

What are the health risks associated with high levels of cholesterol?

Too much cholesterol can lead to health risks such as plaque build-up in arteries, which can result in atherosclerosis and other cardiovascular diseases.

p.47
Health Implications of Saturated and Unsaturated F...

Why is cholesterol important for the body?

Cholesterol is important as a cell membrane component and for hormone synthesis. A small amount is sufficient for these functions, but excess can be harmful.

p.48
Nutritional Role of Carbohydrates

What are the main dietary recommendations for maintaining health according to the 2015 Dietary Guidelines?

  • More fruits and vegetables
  • Less red and processed meat
  • Choose whole grains instead of refined grains
  • Include nonfat dairy foods, legumes, nuts, and seafood
  • Reduce foods with added sugars, saturated fat, and sodium
  • Moderate consumption of eggs is now considered acceptable, with research showing a weak link between dietary cholesterol and blood cholesterol levels.
p.49
Nutritional Role of Carbohydrates

What are the main dietary recommendations for a healthy diet according to the 2015 guidelines?

  • More fruits and vegetables
  • Less red and processed meat
  • Whole grains instead of refined grains
  • Nonfat dairy foods, legumes, nuts, and seafood
  • Fewer foods with added sugars, saturated fat, and sodium
  • Moderate egg consumption (up to one egg a day) is considered acceptable
p.50
Health Implications of Saturated and Unsaturated F...

What percentage of cholesterol in the bloodstream is produced by the body?

About 80% of the cholesterol in the bloodstream is produced by the body, while only 20% comes from food.

p.50
Health Implications of Saturated and Unsaturated F...

What are some vital functions of cholesterol in the body?

Cholesterol is vital for several functions, including:

  1. Building block in cell membranes
  2. Production of vitamin D
  3. Synthesis of hormones (like testosterone and estrogen)
  4. Formation of fat-dissolving bile acids
p.50
Health Implications of Saturated and Unsaturated F...

Why is cholesterol often viewed negatively in relation to heart health?

Cholesterol is viewed negatively because excess cholesterol in the bloodstream contributes to artery-clogging plaque, which can lead to heart disease and increase the risk of heart attacks.

p.51
Health Implications of Saturated and Unsaturated F...

How has the approach to studying the effect of cholesterol in the diet changed according to Klurfeld?

Scientists now emphasize the importance of studying humans rather than relying primarily on experimental animals like rabbits, which do not process cholesterol effectively due to their herbivorous diet.

p.52
Metabolic Roles of Lipids

What are the metabolic roles of lipids in the body?

  • Energy storage: Lipids provide more than twice the energy of carbohydrates or proteins.
  • Energy source: The energy from lipids is released during respiration.
  • Absorption of fat-soluble vitamins: Lipids aid in the absorption of vitamins such as A, D, E, and K.
  • Hormonal functions: Some lipids function as hormones, playing crucial roles in various physiological processes.
p.53
Breakdown of Macromolecules

What are the extracellular enzymes involved in the digestion of triglycerides and their end products?

The extracellular enzymes involved in the digestion of triglycerides are Lipase and Colipase, resulting in the end products of B-mono-glyceride and Fatty Acids.

p.53
Breakdown of Macromolecules

Which enzymes are involved in the digestion of phospholipids and what are the resulting end products?

The digestion of phospholipids involves the extracellular enzyme Phospholipase and the intestinal mucosal enzyme Phosphatase, resulting in the end products of Alcohols, Fatty Acids, and Phosphate.

p.53
Breakdown of Macromolecules

What is the role of Cholesterol Esterase in lipid digestion and what does it produce?

Cholesterol Esterase is the extracellular enzyme involved in the digestion of cholesterol esters, producing Cholesterol and Fatty Acid as end products.

p.53
Breakdown of Macromolecules

What are the end products of wax digestion and the enzyme involved?

The digestion of waxes involves the extracellular enzyme Lipase, resulting in the end products of Monohydric Alcohol and Fatty Acid.

p.54
Characteristics and Types of Lipids

What is the role of bile salts in the emulsification of dietary fats?

Bile salts from the liver emulsify fats by breaking down large fat globules into smaller droplets, increasing the lipid surface area for enzymatic exposure.

p.54
Breakdown of Macromolecules

How does emulsification affect the enzymatic breakdown of fats?

Emulsification increases the lipid surface area, allowing lipase from pancreatic juice to more effectively cleave off fatty acids from the fat droplets.

p.55
Breakdown of Macromolecules

What is the process of emulsification in dietary fat digestion?

Emulsification is the process where large fat droplets from the stomach are acted upon by bile salts from the liver, forming smaller emulsion droplets that facilitate digestion.

p.55
Breakdown of Macromolecules

Where does digestion of dietary fats primarily occur?

Digestion of dietary fats primarily occurs in the emulsion droplets formed during the emulsification process.

p.55
Breakdown of Macromolecules

What role do micelles play in the absorption of dietary fats?

Micelles, formed from monoglycerides and fatty acids associating with bile salts and phospholipids, transport lipids to the surface of enterocytes (intestinal absorptive cells) for absorption.

p.56
Breakdown of Macromolecules

What happens to monoglycerides and fatty acids once they enter the cell?

Monoglycerides and fatty acids are re-synthesized into triglycerides and packaged into chylomicrons along with cholesterol and fat-soluble vitamins.

p.56
Characteristics and Types of Lipids

What are chylomicrons and their role in the body?

Chylomicrons are lipoproteins designed for the transport of lipids in the circulation. They are released by exocytosis and enter lacteals (lymphatic capillaries) due to their large size, eventually flowing into the general circulation via lymphatic vessels.

p.57
Health Implications of Saturated and Unsaturated F...

What is the role of fat in the body?

Fat serves several important functions in the body:

  1. Energy Source: Provides a significant source of energy.
  2. Brain Composition: Comprises about 60% of the brain's structure.
  3. Cell Membrane Structure: Acts as building blocks for cell membranes and hormones.
  4. Nutrient Absorption: Aids in the absorption of vitamins and minerals.
p.57
Health Implications of Saturated and Unsaturated F...

What type of fat is considered bad for health?

Trans fats are considered bad fats that can negatively impact health.

p.57
Health Implications of Saturated and Unsaturated F...

Why is it important to consume the right amount of fat?

Consuming the right amount of fat is crucial because:

  • It supports essential bodily functions.
  • It helps maintain overall health and well-being.
  • Excessive intake of bad fats can lead to health issues.
p.58
Health Implications of Saturated and Unsaturated F...

What initiates the inflammatory response in atherosclerosis?

The oxidation of cholesterol initiates the inflammatory response in atherosclerosis.

p.58
Health Implications of Saturated and Unsaturated F...

What happens to macrophages in the process of atherosclerosis?

Macrophages eat and digest cholesterol, turning into foam cells that accumulate to form plaques.

p.58
Health Implications of Saturated and Unsaturated F...

What is the consequence of smooth muscle cells covering the plaques in atherosclerosis?

The covering of plaques by smooth muscle cells reduces blood flow and may even result in a blood clot.

p.59
Characteristics and Types of Lipids

What component(s) determine whether a lipid is saturated or unsaturated?

The saturation of a lipid is determined by the structure of its fatty acids. Specifically, the presence of double bonds in the fatty acid chains indicates that the lipid is unsaturated, while the absence of double bonds indicates that it is saturated. Therefore, the correct answer is Fatty Acid 1, 2, and 3.

p.60
Characteristics and Types of Lipids

What process facilitates lipid digestion and absorption due to the lipophobic nature of dietary lipids?

Emulsification is the process that facilitates lipid digestion and absorption by breaking down fats into smaller droplets, increasing the surface area for lipase action.

p.61
Role of Steroids and Hormones in the Body

What are the primary functions of Testosterone in the body?

Testosterone is primarily responsible for:

  1. Development of male reproductive tissues such as the testes and prostate.
  2. Promotion of secondary sexual characteristics including increased muscle and bone mass, and the growth of body hair.
  3. Regulation of libido (sex drive) and sexual function.
  4. Influencing mood and energy levels.
  5. Supporting sperm production.
p.61
Role of Steroids and Hormones in the Body

What are the primary functions of Estrogen in the body?

Estrogen is primarily responsible for:

  1. Regulating the menstrual cycle and reproductive system.
  2. Development of female secondary sexual characteristics such as breast development and body fat distribution.
  3. Maintaining bone density and cardiovascular health.
  4. Influencing mood and cognitive function.
  5. Supporting pregnancy and fetal development.
p.62
Role of Steroids and Hormones in the Body

What is the role of the pituitary gland in testosterone production?

The pituitary gland, located in the center of the brain, tells the testicles to produce testosterone.

p.62
Health Implications of Saturated and Unsaturated F...

How does low testosterone affect physical health?

Low testosterone can lead to reduced muscle mass and strength, as well as increased body fat, such as a 'pot belly.'

p.62
Health Implications of Saturated and Unsaturated F...

What is the impact of low testosterone on bone health?

Prolonged periods of low testosterone decrease bone density, increasing the risk of osteoporosis.

p.62
Health Implications of Saturated and Unsaturated F...

What are the sexual health implications of low testosterone?

Low testosterone can lead to problems achieving or maintaining erections.

p.62
Role of Steroids and Hormones in the Body

How does the brain regulate testosterone production?

The brain regulates testosterone production by sending a signal to the pituitary gland.

p.62
Role of Steroids and Hormones in the Body

What is the function of the testicles in relation to testosterone?

The testicles produce testosterone and help maintain normal levels in the body.

p.63
Health Implications of Saturated and Unsaturated F...

How can creatine and DHEA in fitness shakes affect hair loss?

Creatine and DHEA can raise testosterone levels, which then converts to Dihydrotestosterone (DHT). DHT is known to attack hair follicles, potentially speeding up the hair-thinning process, particularly in men predisposed to male pattern baldness.

p.66
Definition of Organic Molecules

What genetic condition affects the Guevedoces males in the Dominican Republic?

The Guevedoces males are affected by a deficiency in the enzyme 5-alpha-reductase, which prevents the conversion of testosterone into dihydro-testosterone, leading to the absence of male genitalia at birth.

p.66
Organic Nature of Macromolecules

What happens to Guevedoces males at puberty?

At puberty, Guevedoces males experience a second surge of testosterone, which leads to the development of male characteristics such as muscles, testes, and a penis.

p.66
Definition of Organic Molecules

How does the Guevedoces condition illustrate the relationship between genetics and physical development?

The Guevedoces condition illustrates that despite having an XY chromosome, the physical development of males can be influenced by genetic factors, such as the deficiency of the enzyme 5-alpha-reductase, affecting the expression of male genitalia until puberty.

p.67
Role of Steroids and Hormones in the Body

What are the positive effects of estrogen on the brain?

Estrogen helps to:

  • Maintain body temperature
  • Potentially delay memory loss
  • Regulate parts of the brain for sexual and reproductive development
p.67
Role of Steroids and Hormones in the Body

How does estrogen affect bone health?

Estrogen helps to preserve bone density, which is crucial for maintaining strong bones and preventing osteoporosis.

p.67
Role of Steroids and Hormones in the Body

What role does estrogen play in breast development?

Estrogen stimulates the development of the breasts at puberty and prepares the glands for future milk production.

p.67
Role of Steroids and Hormones in the Body

What are the positive effects of estrogen on heart and liver health?

Estrogen helps to regulate the liver's production of cholesterol, decreasing plaque buildup in coronary arteries and lowering the risk of heart attack.

p.67
Role of Steroids and Hormones in the Body

What is a potential negative effect of prolonged exposure to estrogen?

Some research suggests that prolonged exposure to estrogen may increase a woman's risk of breast cancer.

p.68
Role of Steroids and Hormones in the Body

What are anabolic steroids and how do they affect the body?

Anabolic steroids are drugs that mimic the effects of testosterone in the body. They primarily increase protein synthesis within cells, particularly in skeletal muscles, leading to enhanced muscle growth and development. Additionally, they contribute to the development and maintenance of masculine characteristics.

p.70
Health Implications of Saturated and Unsaturated F...

What alarming trend regarding anabolic steroid use was reported in Britain's gyms?

Anabolic steroid use is growing rapidly in Britain's gyms, leading to the installation of needle bins as the number of users surpasses that of heroin addicts who inject.

p.71
Health Implications of Saturated and Unsaturated F...

What did the study by researchers at the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill reveal about the availability of anabolic steroids?

The study confirmed that synthetic anabolic androgenic steroids, injectable testosterone, and adjunctive therapies can be easily purchased over the Internet without a prescription.

p.71
Health Implications of Saturated and Unsaturated F...

What types of substances were examined in the study regarding their availability online?

The study examined synthetic anabolic steroids, injectable testosterone, recovery agents, erectile dysfunction medications, herbal supplements, and non-steroid hormones commonly abused with steroids, such as human growth hormone and insulin-like growth factor.

p.72
Health Implications of Saturated and Unsaturated F...

What trend has been observed regarding anabolic steroid use during the Covid lockdown in Ireland?

Despite the Covid lockdown, there has been a sustained growth in the use of anabolic steroids, with an increase in the number of units seized by authorities.

p.72
Health Implications of Saturated and Unsaturated F...

How many anabolic steroid units were seized in Ireland last year compared to the previous year?

More than 120,000 anabolic steroid units were seized last year, compared to just under 100,000 the previous year.

p.72
Health Implications of Saturated and Unsaturated F...

What agency is responsible for overseeing the use of medicines in Ireland, including anabolic steroids?

The Health Protection Regulation Agency (HPRA) is responsible for overseeing the use of medicines in Ireland, including anabolic steroids.

p.73
Health Implications of Saturated and Unsaturated F...

What are the potential health risks associated with bodybuilding supplements that contain steroids or steroid-like substances?

Bodybuilding supplements containing steroids or steroid-like substances can lead to serious health risks, including:

  1. Liver injury - Some cases can be life-threatening.
  2. Severe acne
  3. Hair loss
  4. Altered mood
  5. Irritability
  6. Increased aggression
  7. Depression
  8. Kidney damage
  9. Heart attack
  10. Stroke
  11. Pulmonary embolism (blood clots in the lungs)
  12. Deep vein thrombosis (blood clots in deep veins)
p.74
Health Implications of Saturated and Unsaturated F...

What are the health risks associated with dietary supplements for young adults under 25?

Young adults under 25 have reported medical issues linked to dietary supplement use, with some supplements posing greater risks than others. Additionally, supplements are not regulated like medications, leading to uncertainty about their contents.

p.74
Health Implications of Saturated and Unsaturated F...

What did researchers find about bodybuilding supplements in a study published in Alimentary Pharmacology and Therapeutics?

Researchers found that some bodybuilding supplements contained anabolic steroids that were not listed on the label, indicating a risk of undisclosed synthetic steroids that mimic testosterone.

p.75
Health Implications of Saturated and Unsaturated F...

What risks do unapproved prescription drugs marketed as dietary supplements pose to consumers?

Unapproved prescription drugs masquerading as dietary supplements can pose significant risks to consumers, including life-threatening reactions such as liver toxicity, heart attack, and stroke.

p.75
Health Implications of Saturated and Unsaturated F...

What actions did Cochcroft take to mislead consumers regarding his dietary supplements?

Cochcroft misled consumers by using fictitious business names, multiple addresses, collaborating with Chinese suppliers to mislabel drug products, and failing to seek FDA approval for his products.

p.75
Health Implications of Saturated and Unsaturated F...

What is the FDA's stance on the use of Selective Androgen Receptor Modulators (SARMs)?

The FDA has cautioned against the use of SARMs, highlighting their association with serious health risks and the requirement for FDA approval before lawful distribution.

Study Smarter, Not Harder
Study Smarter, Not Harder