What is the initial response in bronchial asthma after antigen challenge?
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Early broncho constrictive response at point A.
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What is the initial response in bronchial asthma after antigen challenge?
Early broncho constrictive response at point A.
What is status asthmaticus?
A severe form of asthma that can lead to death.
What is the pressure-volume curve like in uncomplicated chronic bronchitis without emphysema?
It may be nearly normal.
What occludes the bronchi and bronchioles in severe asthma?
Thick, tenacious mucus plugs.
What type of secretions are excessive in chronic bronchitis?
Mucinous or mucopurulent secretions.
What are Curschmann spirals?
Mucous plugs with whorls of shed epithelium found in bronchial asthma.
What is the most striking morphological change in chronic bronchitis?
Increase in the size of the mucous glands.
What causes the reduction in lung elastic recoil in emphysema?
Destruction of alveolar septal elements.
How do 'pink puffers' typically sit?
They sit forward, hunched over with pursed lips.
What are the gross morphological characteristics of chronic bronchitis?
Hyperemia, swelling, and edema of the mucous membranes.
What is a common condition associated with ventilation/perfusion mismatch?
Chronic bronchitis.
What fills the bronchi and bronchioles in chronic bronchitis?
Heavy casts of secretions and pus.
What common factor is associated with both emphysema and chronic bronchitis?
Smoking.
What are common CNS effects of hypoxemia?
Headache, somnolence, or altered mental status.
What severe effects can profound acute hypoxemia cause?
Convulsions, renal hemorrhages, and ischemic brain injury.
What contributes to obstruction in COPD?
Small airway disease.
What is a warning sign in asthma related to PaCO2 levels?
Increased PaCO2.
What does lung compliance measure?
Change in lung volume for a change in intrapulmonary pressure.
What is a common cause of Type II respiratory failure?
Hypoventilation.
What conditions are associated with increased lung compliance?
Emphysema and aging.
What changes occur in smooth muscle due to airway remodeling in asthma?
Smooth muscle hypertrophy and hyperplasia.
What causes thickening of the bronchiolar wall in chronic bronchitis?
Smooth muscle hypertrophy.
What types of airspaces exist in Centriacinar Emphysema?
Both emphysematous and normal airspaces.
What is the hallmark of emphysema?
Reduction in lung elastic recoil.
What characterizes the late-phase asthmatic response?
It has a slower onset and occurs at point B.
What is occupational asthma?
A type of asthma triggered usually after repeated exposure to specific substances.
What does hypocapnia indicate in asthma?
Respiratory alkalosis.
What is lung compliance?
The ease with which the lung can expand.
What is the compliance status in chronic bronchitis?
Normal.
What causes the perfusion defect in emphysema?
Damaged capillaries.
What is a complication of chronic bronchitis that involves high blood pressure in the lungs?
Pulmonary hypertension.
What is one component of airway remodeling in bronchial asthma?
Epithelial disruption/injury.
What are the key leukotrienes involved in the pathogenesis of atopic asthma?
Leukotrienes C4, D4, and E4.
What is the effect of chronic bronchitis on the work of breathing?
It increases airflow resistance, requiring slow, deep breathing to minimize total work.
What leads to pulmonary hypertension in chronic bronchitis?
Chronic hypoxic vasoconstriction of the small pulmonary arteries.
What is a key characteristic of emphysema?
Destruction of the walls of air spaces.
What happens to the smooth muscle in the pulmonary vasculature due to chronic bronchitis?
Smooth muscle hypertrophy.
What effect does acetylcholine have in atopic asthma?
It causes airway smooth muscle constriction by stimulating muscarinic receptors, leading to airway hyperreactivity.
What is the most common type of bronchial asthma?
Atopic asthma.
What is compensatory hyperinflation?
A response to loss of lung substance, such as hyper expansion of residual lung parenchyma following surgical removal of a diseased lung or lobe.
Which interleukin is responsible for IgE production in atopic asthma?
IL-4.
What is respiratory failure?
A condition where the lung fails to adequately oxygenate arterial blood and/or fails to prevent CO2 retention.
What are the variable symptoms associated with emphysema?
Cough or wheezing and expectoration.
When do asthma symptoms typically occur?
Usually at night or early morning.
What happens to the lungs in patients dying of acute severe asthma?
The lungs are distended by overinflation and contain small areas of atelectasis.
What triggers the early broncho constrictive response in asthma?
Direct stimulation of subepithelial vagal receptors.
What protein is associated with Charcot-Leyden crystals?
Galectin-10.
What are the common arterial blood gas abnormalities in severe chronic bronchitis?
Hypercapnia, respiratory acidosis, and compensatory metabolic alkalosis.
What condition is frequently associated with chronic hypoxemia?
Polycythemia, indicated by an elevated hematocrit.
What is the mechanism behind occupational asthma?
What condition does hypercapnia lead to?
Respiratory acidosis due to hyperventilation.
What cardiovascular effects are associated with hypoxemia?
Tachycardia and mild hypertension due to catecholamine release.
What is drug-induced asthma?
A type of asthma triggered by pharmacological agents.
How do patients with emphysema adapt to high V/Q ratios?
By increasing their minute ventilation.
What does airway fibrosis contribute to in bronchial asthma?
It is a component of airway remodeling.
What conditions can increase airway resistance leading to Type II respiratory failure?
COPD and asthma.
What happens to chest wall compliance with aging?
It decreases due to rib calcification and the effects of osteoporosis.
How do eosinophils contribute to atopic asthma?
They release major basic protein and eosinophil cationic protein, which damage the epithelium.
What immune response is exaggerated in atopic asthma?
Th2 and IgE response.
What occurs during a prolonged asthma attack?
Air is trapped behind the occluded and narrowed airways.
What is the effect of aging on Total Lung Capacity (TLC)?
TLC remains unchanged.
What is goblet cell hyperplasia?
An increase in goblet cells in the bronchus, often seen in bronchial asthma.
What cellular change occurs in goblet cells in chronic bronchitis?
Goblet cell hyperplasia.
Is the airflow obstruction in asthma reversible?
Yes, at least partly reversible, either spontaneously or with treatment.
What type of inflammation is characteristic of bronchial asthma?
Eosinophilic inflammation.
What happens to FVC and FEV1 in airflow obstruction?
Both FVC and FEV1 are decreased.
What happens to diffusion capacity with aging?
It decreases significantly.
What is one cause of hypercapnia?
Hypoventilation.
What initiates hypoxic pulmonary vasoconstriction?
Hypoxia.
What is another cause of hypercapnia?
Ventilation-perfusion mismatch.
What does a shunt refer to in the context of hypoxemia?
A condition where blood bypasses the lungs, leading to low oxygen levels.
What percussion finding is associated with emphysema?
Hyperresonance and loss of cardiac dullness.
What is the primary function of α1-antitrypsin?
It is a major inhibitor of proteases, particularly elastase.
How does emphysema affect diffusing capacity for carbon monoxide (DLCO)?
DLCO is decreased.
What type of cells are numerous in the cytology of bronchial asthma?
Eosinophils.
What is the Reid index in chronic bronchitis?
Increased compared to the normal value of 0.4.
How is the Reid index related to chronic bronchitis?
It usually increases in proportion to the severity and duration of the disease.
What does the Reid index measure?
The maximum thickness of the bronchial mucus glands divided by the bronchial wall thickness.
What does increased PaCO2 indicate in asthma?
Worsening airflow obstruction or fatigue of the respiratory muscles.
What physiological condition occurs in Type I respiratory failure?
Fluid filling of alveoli and subsequent intrapulmonary shunting.
What is a key characteristic of obstructive lung diseases?
Increase in resistance to airflow, leading to problems emptying the lung.
What are some causes of Type I respiratory failure?
Pulmonary edema, lung injury, pneumonia, ARDS, or alveolar hemorrhage.
What can occur in severe cases of hypoxemia?
Bradycardia, hypotension, and potentially cardiac arrest.
What are the characteristics of COPD?
Persistent respiratory symptoms and airflow limitation.
Name one type of emphysema other than centriacinar.
Panacinar, Distal acinar, or Irregular.
Who is commonly affected by Centriacinar Emphysema?
Heavy cigarette smokers and coal mine workers.
What conditions are associated with decreased lung compliance?
Interstitial lung diseases.
What happens to residual volume, FRC, and TLC during an asthma attack?
They are increased.
What are the key microscopic features of bronchial asthma?
Edema and cellular infiltrates within the bronchial wall, including eosinophils and lymphocytes.
What is a characteristic feature of bronchial asthma?
Airway inflammation.
What type of fibrosis occurs in chronic bronchitis?
Peribronchial fibrosis.
What defines bronchial reversibility?
A 12% or greater increase in FEV1 in response to an inhaled bronchodilator.
What are common clinical findings associated with hypoxemia?
Cyanosis, tachycardia, and altered mental status.
What is the function of IL-5 in atopic asthma?
It attracts eosinophils.
How is the degree of hypoxemia determined?
By measuring PO2 through arterial blood gas analysis.
What is a common finding in atopic asthma regarding family history?
Positive family history.
Which type of emphysema is classified as Type B?
Distal acinar.
What breathing pattern minimizes total work in diseases that increase elastic forces?
Rapid, shallow breathing.
What defines bullous emphysema?
Presence of subpleural blebs larger than 1 cm.
What chronic condition can result from emphysema affecting breathing?
Chronic respiratory failure.
What is the RV/TLC ratio in young healthy patients?
Less than 30%.
What role does oxidative stress play in emphysema?
It contributes to the disease process.
What is cor pulmonale?
Right-sided heart failure due to lung disease.
What is acute on chronic respiratory failure?
A situation where an acute episode occurs in a patient with chronic respiratory failure.
What are Charcot-Leyden crystals?
Collections of crystalloids made up of eosinophil proteins, indicating inflammation and mucus production.
What are the two main conditions associated with Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease (COPD)?
Emphysema and chronic bronchitis.
What happens to static recoil pressure at a specific lung volume in emphysema?
It decreases.
What characterizes Type I respiratory failure?
Hypoxemia (PO2 < 60 mmHg) without hypercapnia (PCO2 < 50 mmHg).
What are the typical PO2 and PCO2 levels in advanced emphysema?
Nearly normal levels despite advanced disease.
What is the most common type of emphysema?
Centriacinar (Centrilobular) Emphysema.
How can total work of breathing be minimized with increased airflow resistance?
By slow, deep breathing.
Is airflow limitation in COPD fully reversible?
No, airflow limitation is not fully reversible.
What is the most common type of emphysema?
Centriacinar.
What are the signs of cor pulmonale?
Raised JVP, tender hepatomegaly, and pedal edema.
What role does Prostaglandin D2 play in atopic asthma?
It contributes to bronchoconstriction, increased vascular permeability, and increased mucus secretion.
What happens to FEV1, FEV1/FVC ratio, and peak expiratory flow during an asthma attack?
They are decreased.
How does airway vascularity change in bronchial asthma?
There is increased airway vascularity.
What happens to total lung capacity (TLC) and residual volume (RV) in obstructive lung diseases?
Both TLC and RV increase.
What is the effect of increased cysteinyl leukotrienes in asthma?
They promote inflammation, submucosal edema, and airway obstruction.
What role do environmental factors play in atopic asthma?
They contribute to the development in genetically susceptible individuals.
What is hypoxemia?
A condition characterized by low oxygen saturation in the blood.
What is the first clinical symptom of emphysema?
Progressive dyspnea.
What components affect the total work of breathing at the same minute ventilation?
Elastic and resistive components.
What are the episodic symptoms of bronchial asthma?
Chest tightness, prolonged expiration, dyspnea with wheezing, and cough.
How can total work of breathing be minimized in conditions with increased airflow resistance?
By practicing slow, deep breathing.
What does IL-13 stimulate in the context of atopic asthma?
Mucus secretion.
What is observed in residual volume (RV) and total lung capacity (TLC) due to air trapping?
Both RV and TLC are increased.
What do patients with emphysema use during respiration?
Accessory muscles of respiration.
What are the types of respiratory failure?
Acute, chronic, and acute on chronic.
What happens to voltage-gated potassium channels during hypoxia?
They close.
What characterizes nonatopic asthma?
No allergen sensitization and usually negative skin tests.
What characterizes chronic respiratory failure?
It persists for months to years, commonly seen in conditions like COPD and IPF.
Which diseases can cause ventilation-perfusion mismatch?
Obstructive diseases, restrictive diseases, pulmonary vascular diseases, and ARDS.
What do neutrophils elaborate that contributes to emphysema?
Proteases.
What is the initial event leading to complications in emphysema?
Damage to the capillary bed.
What is the most common mutation of α1-antitrypsin?
PiZ.
What is the most common pattern of arterial blood gases in asthma?
Low PaO2 and low PaCO2.
What is the V/Q mismatch in emphysema?
Matched, with adaptations to high V/Q ratios by increasing minute ventilation.
How does compliance of the lung change in emphysema?
It increases.
What are the two components that the total work of breathing depends on?
Elastic and resistive components.
What causes COPD?
Exposure to noxious particles or gases, typically from smoking.
What substances can trigger occupational asthma?
Fumes, organic and chemical dusts, gases, and various chemicals.
In which part of the lungs is Centriacinar Emphysema more severe?
In the upper lobes.
What is aspirin-sensitive asthma?
An uncommon type of asthma associated with urticaria and characterized by Samter’s Triad.
What is the FEV1/FVC ratio indicative of obstructive lung diseases?
Less than 0.7.
What is Samter’s Triad?
A combination of asthma, aspirin sensitivity, and nasal polyposis.
What type of hypersensitivity reaction is associated with atopic asthma?
Type 1 hypersensitivity reaction.
What is a characteristic feature of distal acinar emphysema?
It is associated with spontaneous pneumothorax in young adults.
What happens to mucous glands in the context of airway remodeling in asthma?
Mucous gland hyperplasia occurs.
In distal acinar emphysema, which part of the acinus is predominantly involved?
The distal part.
What is the role of Platelet-activating factor in atopic asthma?
It causes aggregation of platelets and the release of serotonin.
What causes bronchoconstriction in asthma?
Widespread but variable bronchoconstriction and airflow limitation.
In which part of the lungs is distal acinar emphysema more severe?
In the upper half of the lungs.
What is bronchial hyperresponsiveness?
A 20% or greater decrease in FEV1 in response to a provoking factor during a methacholine challenge test.
What happens to the mucus-secreting glands of the trachea and bronchi in chronic bronchitis?
They enlarge.
What change does methacholine cause in a healthy individual?
Less than a 5% change in FEV1.
Is irregular emphysema clinically significant?
No, it is clinically insignificant.
What are acute exacerbations in the context of emphysema?
Sudden worsening of symptoms.
What is diffusion impairment?
A cause of hypoxemia where gas exchange is hindered in the alveoli.
What test is used to identify specific IgE antibodies in atopic asthma?
Serum radio-allergosorbent test (RASTs).
What characterizes acute respiratory failure?
It lasts from a few minutes to several days, often due to infections or asthma exacerbation.
What is ventilation-perfusion mismatch?
A cause of hypoxemia where ventilation and blood flow in the lungs are not properly matched.
What is a common trigger for nonatopic asthma?
Viral respiratory infections (e.g., rhino, parainfluenza, respiratory syncytial virus).
Which cells secrete α1-antitrypsin during inflammation?
Neutrophils and macrophages.
On which chromosome is the α1-antitrypsin gene located?
Chromosome 14.
What type of vasoconstriction is mediated by calcium influx?
Pulmonary vasoconstriction.
What does PiMZ indicate?
Heterozygotes with α1-antitrypsin levels at 60% of normal and are asymptomatic.
What serious condition can develop from secondary pulmonary hypertension?
Cor pulmonale.
What measurement is used to assess the response in bronchial asthma?
Forced expiratory volume in 1 second (FEV1).
Why is the pressure-volume curve nearly normal in chronic bronchitis?
Because the parenchyma is little affected.
What is the WHO definition of COPD?
A common public health problem that is preventable and treatable, characterized by persistent respiratory symptoms and airflow limitation.
What factors determine lung compliance?
Elastic properties of the lung, water content, and surface tension.
What is the primary cause of airway remodeling in bronchial asthma?
Chronic airway inflammation and the release of mediators including growth factors.
What characterizes Type II respiratory failure?
Hypoxemia (PO2 < 60 mmHg) with hypercapnia (PCO2 > 50 mmHg).
In which condition is total work of breathing minimized by rapid, shallow breathing?
In disease states that increase elastic forces, such as pulmonary fibrosis.
What percentage of emphysema cases does Centriacinar Emphysema account for?
95%.
What happens to tissue PO2 during hypoxemia?
It falls below a critical level, leading to cessation of aerobic oxidation and increased lactate levels.
What are some extrapulmonary diseases that can cause Type II respiratory failure?
CNS suppression, neuromuscular diseases (like Myasthenia gravis, Guillain-Barre syndrome, and amyotrophic lateral sclerosis), and skeletal abnormalities (like myopathies and kyphoscoliosis).
How do NSAIDs affect asthma?
They inhibit Cyclooxygenase 1 (COX1), leading to decreased Prostaglandin E2 (PGE2) and increased cysteinyl leukotrienes.
What is the significance of the alveolar-arterial diffusion gradient (AaDO2)?
It helps differentiate intrapulmonary causes (>15-20 in young) from extrapulmonary causes (<10).
What is interstitial emphysema?
The entrance of air into the connective tissue stroma of the lung, mediastinum, or subcutaneous tissue.
What is a consequence of obstructive lung diseases related to airflow?
Air trapping and hyperinflation.
What is the anatomical definition of emphysema?
Irreversible enlargement of air spaces distal to terminal bronchiole with destruction of their walls.
What is obstructive overinflation?
The lung expands because air is trapped within it but no destruction occurs.
What is the FEV1/FVC ratio indicative of airflow obstruction?
Less than 70%.
What causes obstructive overinflation?
Subtotal obstruction of the airways by a tumor or foreign object.
What is the PO2 threshold indicating respiratory failure?
Below 60 mm Hg.
What physical characteristic is often observed in patients with emphysema?
Asthenic build with evidence of recent weight loss.
What is muscle hypertrophy in the context of bronchial asthma?
An increase in muscle mass in the bronchial walls, contributing to airway obstruction.
What is senile emphysema?
Emphysema that occurs due to the physiologic atrophy of old age with destruction of the alveolar wall.
What is pulsus paradoxus and its significance in asthma?
A drop in blood pressure (≥10 mm Hg) that accompanies pulmonary hyperinflation.
What is Panacinar (Panlobular) Emphysema?
A type of emphysema where the entire acinus is involved.
Which condition is associated with increased elastic forces?
Pulmonary fibrosis.
What is status asthmaticus?
A severe paroxysm of asthma that does not respond to therapy and persists for days.
What deficiency is associated with Panacinar Emphysema?
α1-antitrypsin deficiency.
In which age group is Panacinar Emphysema commonly seen?
In young individuals.
What is the normal variant of α1-antitrypsin?
PiMM.
What happens to goblet cells and mucous glands in chronic bronchitis?
There is a marked increase in goblet cells and mucous glands, leading to excessive mucus production.
What are common triggers for occupational asthma?
Fumes (epoxy resins, plastics), organic and chemical dusts (wood, cotton, platinum), gases (toluene), and other chemicals (formaldehyde, penicillin products).
Do most patients with COPD exhibit features of both emphysema and chronic bronchitis?
Yes, the majority of patients have features of both.
What type of reaction is involved in occupational asthma?
Type 1 reaction.
What is the anatomical definition of emphysema?
Irreversible enlargement of air spaces distal to terminal bronchiole with destruction of their walls.
How does compliance change in emphysema and aging?
It is increased.
What type of disease is obstructive lung disease classified as?
Diffuse airway disease.
What respiratory condition can result from hypoxemia?
Pulmonary hypertension.
What type of inflammation is predominant in chronic bronchitis?
Chronic inflammation predominantly involving lymphocytes and macrophages.
What is the FEV1 percentage in obstructive lung diseases?
Less than 80%.
What role do genetic factors play in COPD?
Certain genetic polymorphisms can contribute to the disease.
How does lung compliance change with aging?
It increases due to loss of elastin, without destruction of alveoli.
What type of disease is bronchial asthma?
Chronic Obstructive airway disease with variable expiratory airflow obstruction.
What is a potential outcome of cor pulmonale?
Respiratory failure.
Where is distal acinar emphysema typically seen?
Adjacent to the pleura and areas of fibrosis, scarring, or atelectasis.
What happens to Residual Volume (RV) with aging?
It increases significantly.
What is the most common type of emphysema?
Centriacinar (Type A).
How do Forced Vital Capacity (FVC) and Forced Expiratory Volume in 1 second (FEV1) change with aging?
Both decrease significantly.
What type of emphysema is classified as Type C?
Panacinar.
What is a common complication of emphysema that involves air in the pleural space?
Pneumothorax.
What type of hypersensitivity is associated with bronchial asthma?
Type I hypersensitivity.
What is typically elevated in atopic asthma?
Total serum IgE levels.
What is the RV/TLC ratio in patients with airflow obstruction?
Exceeds 40%.
What type of injury is associated with the development of emphysema?
Toxic injury.
Can CO2 be eliminated even with ventilation-perfusion mismatch?
Yes, by increasing ventilation.
Where does Panacinar Emphysema commonly occur?
In the lower lung zones.
Which inflammatory cells are recruited in the pathogenesis of emphysema?
Neutrophils.
Is positive family history common in nonatopic asthma?
No, it is uncommon.
What are other triggers for nonatopic asthma?
Inhalants, cold, and exercise.
What can massive collapse of the lungs due to pneumothorax lead to?
Death.
What condition can develop as a result of hypoxic vasoconstriction?
Secondary pulmonary hypertension.
What is the final outcome of the complications stemming from emphysema?
Congestive heart failure.
What is deposited in the muscle layer during chronic bronchitis?
Extracellular matrix.
What type of epithelial damage is observed in bronchial asthma?
Fragile epithelium with detachment of surface epithelial cells from basal cells.
What is the DLCO often like during an asthma attack?
It is often increased due to increased lung and lung capillary blood volume.
When does atopic asthma typically begin?
In childhood.
What is subbasement membrane fibrosis?
Fibrosis occurring beneath the basement membrane in the bronchus, associated with asthma.
What are common triggers for atopic asthma?
Dusts, pollens, cockroach or animal dander, and food.
What characterizes irregular emphysema?
The acinus is irregularly involved and almost invariably associated with scarring.
What is hypercapnia?
An increase in carbon dioxide (CO2) levels in the blood.
What is one cause of hypoxemia related to breathing patterns?
Hypoventilation.
What happens during the intervals between asthma attacks?
Patients are free from respiratory difficulty.
What is a common feature of asthma related to airway response?
Hyperresponsiveness.
Which condition is associated with increased airflow resistance?
Chronic bronchitis.
What is the typical FEV1 level in bronchial asthma?
Usually below 30% of predicted normal.
What accumulates intracellularly as a result of potassium channel closure?
K+ (potassium).
What auscultation findings are common in emphysema?
Decreased breath sounds and prolonged expiration.
What is one of the leading causes of death in patients with emphysema?
Coronary artery disease.
What does a decreased DLCO in emphysema reflect?
Progressive loss of alveoli and their capillary beds.
What is the consequence of a relative deficiency of antiproteases in emphysema?
Destruction of the elastic wall of the lungs.
What is the Reid index and how is it affected in chronic bronchitis?
The Reid index increases due to excessive mucus production.
Why do null variants of α1-antitrypsin lead to lung disease but not liver disease?
This is a complex question related to the distribution and function of α1-antitrypsin in different organs.
What changes occur in bronchial smooth muscle in chronic asthma?
Hypertrophy and/or hyperplasia of the bronchial smooth muscle.
What is a characteristic feature of dyspnea in bronchial asthma?
Wheezing due to airway caliber reduction and prolonged turbulent airflow.
What is the PCO2 threshold indicating respiratory failure?
Greater than 50 mm Hg.
What is a primary cause of emphysema?
Cigarette smoke.
What type of emphysema is classified as Type D?
Irregular.
What shape does the chest of an emphysema patient typically have?
Barrel-shaped.
What condition characterized by high blood pressure in the lungs can develop from emphysema?
Pulmonary hypertension.
How does chronic bronchitis affect diffusing capacity for carbon monoxide (DLCO)?
DLCO remains normal.
What is the result of K+ accumulation in the cells?
Depolarization of the cells.
What opens as a consequence of cell depolarization?
Voltage-gated calcium channels.
What is another significant cause of death related to emphysema?
Respiratory failure.
What physiological response occurs after damage to the capillary bed?
Hypoxic vasoconstriction.
What should patients with α1-antitrypsin deficiency avoid?
Secondhand smoke.
What is a primary cause of chronic bronchitis?
Exposure to noxious or irritating inhaled substances such as tobacco smoke.
What additional condition is associated with Panacinar Emphysema?
Liver disease.
What type of heart failure can result from emphysema?
Right-sided heart failure.
What condition do PiZZ individuals develop?
Symptomatic panacinar emphysema.
What change occurs in the size of submucosal glands in chronic asthma?
An increase in size of the submucosal glands.
Which inflammatory mediators are involved in the pathogenesis of chronic bronchitis?
Histamine and IL-13.
What is absent in serum protein electrophoresis (SPE) in patients with Panacinar Emphysema?
α1-globulin peak.
What is indicated by increased P2 in the second heart sound?
Increased pressure in the pulmonary component due to pulmonary hypertension.
What type of fibrosis occurs in the subbasement membrane in chronic asthma?
Subbasement membrane fibrosis.
What is a consequence of excessive mucus production in chronic bronchitis?
Airway obstruction.
What is airway remodeling in chronic bronchial asthma?
Structural changes in the airways that occur over time.
What happens to the number of airway goblet cells in chronic asthma?
Increase in number of airway goblet cells.
What is the α1-antitrypsin level in PiZZ individuals?
10% of normal.
What happens to the airway wall in chronic asthma?
Thickening of the airway wall.
