What is Wernicke's area responsible for?
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Language comprehension.
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What is Wernicke's area responsible for?
Language comprehension.
What is the size of the pituitary gland?
Small, pea-sized.
Which structure is involved in the cortico-striatal-cortico loop?
Thalamus.
What type of signals does the primary auditory cortex receive?
Signals from the cochlear.
How does sensory input reach the brain in the Somatic Nervous System?
Through cranial nerves and spinal nerves.
What are some higher cognitive processes associated with the prefrontal cortex?
Reasoning and executive functions.
What is the primary function of the sympathetic division of the autonomic nervous system?
To prepare the body for flight or fight action.
How does the posterior area of the primary auditory cortex respond to sound frequencies?
It responds to lower frequencies.
What Brodmann areas are associated with the prefrontal cortex?
Areas 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, and 46.
What does the Premotor Cortex prepare for?
Movements for the Primary Motor Cortex (PMC).
What type of energy does the sympathetic division expend?
Energy in stressful situations.
What is the role of motor output in the Somatic Nervous System?
To reach muscles and effect movement.
Which university is associated with the copyright information?
The Chinese University of Hong Kong.
What functions does the hypothalamus regulate?
Emotions, autonomic control, hunger, satiety, immunity, memory input, and anger control.
What are the five secondary brain vesicles?
Telencephalon, Diencephalon, Mesencephalon, Metencephalon, and Myelencephalon.
Where is the thalamus located in the brain?
In the center of the brain, above the brainstem.
What is the role of the supramarginal gyrus in the Inferior Parietal Lobule?
It is associated with a broad range of language formulation operations, including semantic and phonologic processing.
What does the parasympathetic division do after an emergency has passed?
It calms the viscera, such as the heart and lungs.
What do striatal tracts connect?
The cortex with the basal ganglia.
What components make up the Central Nervous System?
The brain and spinal cord.
What does UMN stand for in the context of innervation?
Upper Motor Neuron.
Which institution holds the copyright mentioned?
Faculty of Medicine, The Chinese University of Hong Kong.
What does the term 'Motor Homunculus' refer to?
It refers to the representation of the body in the primary motor cortex, depicted as a 'little man'.
Where do the pyramidal tracts arise from?
Pyramidal cells in the primary motor cortex.
What is the primary function of the thalamus?
To act as a relay station for sensory information.
What are the main components of the Telencephalon?
Cerebral hemispheres, limbic system, basal ganglia, and lateral ventricles.
What happens to sensory input when it reaches the thalamus?
We become aware of the sensory input.
What is the intended use of the images and media mentioned?
For teaching and learning purposes only.
What type of inputs does the prefrontal cortex receive?
Converging inputs from multiple areas of the brain and thalamus.
How is personality related to the prefrontal cortex?
It is influenced by the functions of the prefrontal cortex.
What happens if Wernicke's area is damaged?
It results in Wernicke's aphasia.
What structures are included in the supratentorial division?
Hemispheres, lobes, basal ganglia, thalamus, cranial nerves I and II.
What is the corticobulbar tract composed of?
Upper motor neurons of the cranial nerves.
What is the primary motor cortex responsible for?
It is responsible for motor control and movement representation.
What is the function of the cortico-striatal-cortico loop?
For motor control and speech motor control.
What specific activities is the insular cortex engaged in?
Speech, language, and swallowing.
What is another major part of the brain mentioned?
Cerebrum.
What do motor neurons control?
Voluntary and involuntary movements through innervation of effector muscles and glands.
What type of brain structures are referred to as subcortical?
Structures located beneath the cerebral cortex.
What does the Peripheral Nervous System (PNS) consist of?
Nerves and ganglia outside the brain and spinal cord.
Where do neurons of the spinal motor tract synapse?
In the ventral horn.
Who are the key figures associated with language localization in the brain?
Paul Broca and Carl Wernicke.
What is the outer layer of the cerebrum called?
Cortex.
What is the function of the inferior cerebellar peduncle?
It carries both afferent and efferent signals from the medulla.
What are the paired structures in the cerebellum referred to as?
Colliculi, meaning 'small hill'.
What are motor neurons below the level of the synapse called?
Lower Motor Neurons (LMNs).
What does a motor fiber carry to trigger muscle contraction?
An action potential.
What percentage of corticospinal fibers cross to form the lateral corticospinal tract (LCST)?
85 to 90%.
How do all other muscles innervated by CN XII receive input from UMN?
They receive input bilaterally.
What technique did Brodmann use to identify brain areas?
Nissl stain for cells.
What is the function of descending tracts in the spinal cord?
Transmit impulses (the decisions) from the brain down the spinal cord to the nerves.
What type of information primarily enters the cerebellum?
A lot of sensory information.
How do corticobulbar fibers innervate cranial nerves?
Bilaterally, except for cranial nerves VII and XII.
How does the pituitary gland release hormones?
Directly into the bloodstream.
What physical changes occur in the body due to the sympathetic division during stress?
Muscles contract and pupils dilate.
What are the two main views of the brainstem mentioned?
Anterior view and posterior view.
What is the role of the hippocampus in the limbic system?
Involved in the formation and retrieval of memories.
What do motor nerves contain that innervates muscle spindles?
Gamma motor neurons.
What are the colliculi in the midbrain?
Bumps/swellings that overlie nuclei involved in hearing and vision.
What is the function of the pons?
Houses critical motor pathways and acts as a bridge to the cerebellum.
What are the two main systems within the Somatic Nervous System?
Pyramidal system and Extra-pyramidal system.
Which areas of the Parietal Lobe are important for language?
The inferior parietal lobule, specifically the supramarginal gyrus and angular gyrus.
What is the somatic system responsible for?
It is responsible for voluntary movements and the transmission of sensory information.
What structures are found in the posterior fossa?
Pons, medulla, midbrain, and cerebellum.
What muscles are controlled by the corticobulbar system?
Muscles of the face, head, and neck.
What is the primary function of the Premotor Cortex?
Selection of motor plans.
How do the axons of the corticobulbar tract function?
They send axons to brainstem nuclei on both the same side and opposite side as their cortical origin.
What are the two branches of the Autonomic Nervous System?
Parasympathetic Nervous System and Sympathetic Nervous System.
What role does the striatum play in movement selection and learning?
It helps build up a repertoire of movements that can be triggered in response to appropriate stimuli under conditions of practice.
What is the corticobulbar tract?
A neural pathway that connects the cerebral cortex to the brainstem.
What is a motor unit?
An LMN plus the muscle fibers it innervates.
Which gyrus forms an incomplete ring above and around the corpus callosum?
Cingulate gyrus.
How does the thalamus contribute to sensory perception?
By processing and transmitting sensory signals to the appropriate areas of the cortex.
What structures are included in the metencephalon?
The pons and cerebellum.
What are the two main pathways involved in the basal ganglia circuitry?
Cortex, Basal Ganglia, Thalamus.
What types of sensory information does the Primary Somatosensory Cortex receive?
Touch, vibration, pain, and temperature.
What are the two main parts of the spinal cord's gray matter?
Posterior part (dorsal horn) and anterior part (ventral horn).
What type of information does the spinal cord take in?
Sensory information.
What are the two types of colliculi mentioned?
Superior colliculus (SC) and Inferior colliculus (IC).
How does the lower face receive input from upper motor neurons (UMN)?
The lower face receives input contralaterally from UMN.
What is the main outflow pathway from the cerebellum to the cortex?
The superior cerebellar peduncle (cerebellothalamocortical pathway).
Which area of the frontal lobe is responsible for expressive language?
Broca's area.
What happens to the heart rate during stressful situations according to the sympathetic division?
The heart rate increases.
What are the neural pathways located in the brain and spinal cord called?
Tracts.
What is the primary function of the Occipital Lobe?
Vision, visual recognition, and association.
What is the primary function of the Primary Motor Cortex?
For volitional movement of muscles of head, neck, and body.
What type of control does the Somatic Nervous System provide?
Conscious control of muscles from the cerebral cortex to the muscles of the face and body.
What separates the left and right cerebellar hemispheres?
The vermis.
Where are striatal tracts located?
Deep within the cerebral hemispheres.
Why is the insular cortex significant?
It is one of the least understood brain regions with a wide variety of functions.
What Brodmann area corresponds to the Premotor Cortex?
Brodmann area 6.
How does movement scaling function in motor execution?
It scales the force, amplitude, and duration of movements during the execution of motor plans.
Which part of the body occupies most of the area in the sensory homunculus?
The face.
What system is associated with the cerebrum?
Limbic system.
What is the purpose of the provided link?
To reference an illustration of the corticobulbar tract.
What do LMNs control?
The activities of groups of muscle fibers.
What is the primary function of the limbic system?
Emotional and motivational aspects of behavior.
What does the diagram of the primary motor cortex indicate?
It indicates the location and amount of cortex devoted to each part of the body.
What enters the presynaptic terminal after the motor nerve action potential?
Calcium.
How do basal ganglia structures process motor commands?
They receive information from the cortex, process it, and send it back to the cortex via the thalamus.
What neurotransmitter is released at the NMJ?
Acetylcholine (ACh).
How does the upper face receive input from upper motor neurons (UMN)?
The upper face receives input bilaterally from UMN.
Where does the corpus callosum form in the brain?
At the base of the longitudinal fissure.
What is the function of the myelencephalon?
It regulates vital functions such as breathing and heart rate.
Where does the reticulospinal tract originate?
In the reticular formation of the brainstem.
What is the approximate length of the spinal cord?
42 - 45 cm from foramen magnum to first lumbar.
Which structures are associated with the limbic system?
Uncus and amygdala.
Where does sensory information go for reflex actions?
To the spinal cord or brainstem.
What type of circuits do motor neurons comprise?
Tightly controlled, complex circuits throughout the body.
Where is the white matter located in the cerebrum?
Closer to the center of the brain.
How many cervical spinal nerves are there?
8 cervical spinal nerves.
What types of motor movements are controlled by the spinal cord?
Fine and gross motor movements not specific to speech, language, or hearing.
What Brodmann areas correspond to the primary auditory cortex?
Areas 41 and 42, located in Heschl’s gyrus.
What is the telencephalon?
A subcortical region of the cerebrum.
What structures does the hypothalamus connect with?
Limbic system, hippocampus, striatum, and brainstem.
How is each cerebellar hemisphere connected to the brain?
Each is connected to the contralateral thalamus and cerebral hemisphere.
What does the size of the drawn body part in the Primary Motor Cortex indicate?
The larger the drawn body part, the more involved the cortex is, indicating how richly innervated that part is.
Where are higher parts of the body represented in the Primary Motor Cortex?
Towards the Sylvian (lateral) fissure.
What is the primary function of the thalamus?
It serves as a major relay center.
What is the copyright year mentioned?
How many lobes does the cerebrum have?
4 lobes.
What does copyright © 2017 signify?
It indicates that the work is protected and all rights are reserved by the author or publisher.
Where is the primary motor cortex located?
In the precentral gyrus.
Which Brodmann areas are included in the Inferior Parietal Lobule (IPL)?
Brodmann areas 39 (angular gyrus) and 40 (supramarginal gyrus).
What is Broca's area responsible for?
Speech production and language processing.
What institution is associated with the class?
The Chinese University of Hong Kong.
What is the primary function of the basal ganglia?
To refine motor movements.
What is the first step in the neuromuscular junction (NMJ) process?
The motor nerve action potential arrives at the NMJ.
What are the characteristics of the extrapyramidal tract?
It consists of many short pathways and interconnected structures.
Where do Upper Motor Neurons (UMNs) originate?
In the cerebral cortex.
What are large grooves in the cerebrum called?
Fissures.
What is another name for the Primary Somatosensory Cortex?
The sensory strip.
What are the two main systems within the Peripheral Nervous System?
Somatic Nervous System and Autonomic Nervous System.
What triggers muscle fiber contraction at the neuromuscular junction?
The release of acetylcholine (Ach) from synaptic vesicles.
What structures are included in the Metencephalon?
Pons and cerebellum, along with the 4th ventricle.
What happens to upper face function if there is an UMN lesion on one side?
The contralateral side still provides input, preserving upper face function.
Which part of the brain is involved in emotional responses and memory?
The thalamus, as it interacts with the limbic system.
Can you give examples of activities regulated by the Extrapyramidal Tract?
Stretch reflex, extension of legs to maintain postural support, and stepping.
What are the functions of the frontal lobe?
Expressive language, volitional movement, motor planning, cognition (attention, memory, reasoning, personality).
What does the autonomic nervous system regulate?
Involuntary bodily functions, such as heart rate and digestion.
What percentage of corticobulbar fibers decussate?
Only 50%.
How many pairs of spinal nerves are there in total?
31 pairs.
How does the anterior area of the primary auditory cortex respond to sound frequencies?
It responds to higher frequencies.
What does copyright © signify?
It indicates that the work is protected and all rights are reserved by the author or publisher.
What does the term 'Telencephalon' refer to?
The cerebral hemispheres.
What are the three main divisions of the brain during embryonic development?
Forebrain, midbrain, and hindbrain.
How are the pyramidal motor cells in the Primary Motor Cortex arranged?
In a topographical arrangement connected to the body.
What are the anatomical divisions of the brain?
Cerebrum, cerebellum, and brainstem.
What does the medulla form?
Most of the caudal part of the brainstem and is continuous with the spinal cord.
Which side of the body does the Primary Motor Cortex correspond to?
The contralateral side of the body.
What function does the angular gyrus serve?
It is responsible for semantic processing, particularly understanding metaphors and mathematics.
What is the P-T-O region?
The Parietal - Temporal - Occipital region of the brain.
Which areas of the brain does the Arcuate Fasciculus connect?
Broca’s area in the frontal lobe, Wernicke’s area in the temporal lobe, and the supramarginal and angular gyri in the parietal lobe.
What is the primary function of the thalamus?
To act as a relay station for sensory and motor signals to the cerebral cortex.
What is one of the major parts of the brain mentioned?
Diencephalon.
What is set switching in the context of motor control?
It allows the system to respond to novel stimuli and changing circumstances.
What does the sensory homunculus correspond to?
The contralateral side of the body.
How do cranial nerve nuclei receive innervation from UMNs?
Most cranial nerve nuclei receive bilateral innervation from the UMNs.
Which part of the brain is responsible for coordinating voluntary movements?
Cerebellum.
How do cranial nerve nuclei differ from corticospinal tracts?
Unlike corticospinal tracts, most cranial nerve nuclei receive bilateral innervation from UMNs.
What are the two main parts of the cerebrum?
The left and right cerebral hemispheres.
What are the three main tracts to/from the cerebellum?
Inferior, middle, and superior cerebellar peduncles.
What partially completes the ring of the limbic system in the left hemisphere?
Parahippocampal gyrus.
Which tract is crucial for controlling lower motor neuron activity?
The reticulospinal tract.
What is the most caudal part of the CNS?
The spinal cord.
What is the largest lobe of the brain?
Frontal lobe.
What is the major route from the cortex to the cerebellum?
The middle cerebellar peduncle (corticopontocerebellar pathway).
What do Lower Motor Neurons (LMNs) innervate?
Muscles and glands throughout the body.
How does the genioglossus muscle receive input from UMN?
It receives input contralaterally from the lower portion of the CN XII nuclei.
How many areas did Brodmann assign numbers to?
50 areas.
What structure is located in the diencephalon and acts as a relay station for sensory information?
Thalamus.
Which part of the brain receives sensory information for integration and adjustments to movement patterns?
The cerebellum.
What functions does the Somatic Nervous System control?
Voluntary body functions.
What is the primary function of the brainstem?
It controls vital life functions such as breathing, heartbeat, and blood pressure.
What is the result of damage to the primary auditory cortex?
Cortical deafness.
Which institution holds the copyright mentioned?
Faculty of Medicine, The Chinese University of Hong Kong.
What is the prefrontal cortex known as?
The multimodal association cortex.
What is the purpose of the URL provided?
It links to a specific article or figure related to the copyright notice.
What happens if the Occipital Lobe is damaged?
It can result in cortical blindness for some portion of the visual field and an inability to recognize faces.
How does the hippocampus categorize memories?
It helps file experiences in categories, storing similar memories in the same place.
What is the main part of the brain associated with the Telencephalon?
Cerebrum.
What is the primary function of the Temporal Lobe?
Auditory function and receptive language.
What is the role of gamma motor neurons?
They are crucial to maintaining muscle tone.
What is Wernicke's area?
Brodmann area 22.
What is the primary function of the Parietal Lobe?
Conscious reception and integration of various sensations.
What is a somatic reflex arc?
A quick muscle response that bypasses the brain, resulting in faster effector response.
Which area in the Temporal Lobe is crucial for language comprehension?
Wernicke’s area.
What is a characteristic of Wernicke's aphasia?
Impaired ability to understand language.
What are the two main divisions of the nervous system?
Central Nervous System and Peripheral Nervous System.
What is the primary function of the pyramidal tract?
Control of muscular movements.
What is the primary function of the primary motor cortex (PMC)?
It is responsible for voluntary motor control.
What is the primary focus of the class mentioned?
Neuroanatomy & Neurophysiology I.
What is the role of posture and tone regulation in motor control?
It regulates muscle tone and maintains normal posture and static muscle contraction for voluntary and skilled movements including speech.
Which region is referred to as the P-T-O region?
The Parietal - Temporal - Occipital region.
Where do projections of the parasympathetic division arise from?
The brainstem and sacral region of the spinal cord.
Where is Broca's Area located in relation to the premotor cortex?
Just inferior to and anterior to the premotor cortex.
Who is the instructor for the class?
Raymond Fong, PhD.
Which part of the nervous system does the somatic system belong to?
The peripheral nervous system.
What functions does the insular cortex serve?
It is involved in sensory and affective processing as well as high-level cognition.
What does the peripheral division consist of?
Cranial and spinal nerves.
What is the primary function of Broca's Area?
To provide projections to the premotor cortex for speech.
Where is the thalamus located?
In the brain, situated above the brainstem and between the cerebral cortex and midbrain.
What executive functions are managed by the prefrontal cortex?
Planning, organization, monitoring, and controlling of behavior.
What type of cells are predominantly found in the Primary Motor Cortex?
Pyramidal motor cells.
What is the important area located in the Temporal Lobe responsible for processing sound?
Primary auditory cortex.
Where is the primary somatosensory cortex located?
In the post central gyrus.
What is the primary function of the parasympathetic division of the autonomic nervous system?
To conserve energy and return the body to a resting condition, maintaining internal balance (homeostasis).
What is the primary function of the Primary Somatosensory Cortex?
It is responsible for sensory perception and processing.
What are the Brodmann areas associated with Broca's Area?
Areas 44 and 45.
Which faculty is associated with the copyright?
Faculty of Medicine.
What does the brainstem connect to?
The brain to the spinal cord.
What systems are included in the Peripheral Nervous System?
Somatic Nervous System, Pyramidal System, Extrapyramidal System, and Autonomic Nervous System.
What is the role of lower motor neurons?
They serve as the final common pathway to the muscle.
What are the three main parts of the brainstem?
Mesencephalon, Metencephalon, and Myelencephalon.
How are body parts represented in the primary motor cortex?
Representations are arranged topographically.
Into what two tracts does the pyramidal tract divide?
Corticospinal tract (CST) and corticobulbar tract (CBT).
What role does the hypothalamus play in the body?
It regulates homeostasis and controls the endocrine system.
Which structures are part of the Diencephalon?
Thalamus, hypothalamus, and the 3rd ventricle.
How does the thalamus relate to movement?
It integrates motor information from the cerebellum and basal ganglia and transmits messages to motor areas in the cerebrum.
What is the function of the Midbrain?
It is part of the Mesencephalon and contains the cerebral aqueduct.
What is the effect of a unilateral lesion at the UMN on the functions of certain cranial nerve nuclei?
It should not significantly affect the functions of these nuclei.
How is the Peripheral Nervous System divided?
Into the somatic nervous system and the autonomic nervous system.
What type of matter primarily makes up the cortex?
Gray matter, which consists of neuronal cell bodies.
Where does the corticospinal tract primarily receive input from?
The primary motor cortex.
From where does the Primary Somatosensory Cortex receive sensory information?
Via tracts from the brainstem and spinal cord.
How does the flocculonodular lobe assist in motor control?
By controlling eye movements and postural judgment.
Where do most fibers of the corticospinal tract cross the midline?
In the decussation of the pyramids (of the medulla).
Which modality is the superior colliculus primarily associated with?
Visual modality.
What is the role of the Extrapyramidal System?
It regulates involuntary and automatic control of muscles.
What is the characteristic of the corticospinal tract regarding its lateralization?
It is largely contralateral.
What is the name of the ventricle associated with the diencephalon?
3rd ventricle.
What does the dashed line in the context indicate?
The approximate transition from the medulla to the spinal cord.
Which cervical vertebra should be able to be palpated?
C7.
What is the function of the amygdala in the limbic system?
Filters incoming sensory information and evaluates its importance in terms of emotional needs and survival.
What does the Somatic Nervous System coordinate and process?
Movements at a subconscious level, including muscle tone, balance, posture, and locomotion.
What side of the body does each cerebellar hemisphere control?
The ipsilateral side of the body.
What are the main anatomical divisions of the brain?
Supratentorial, posterior fossa, and peripheral.
What is the insular cortex?
A region of the brain located beneath the opercula of the frontal, parietal, and temporal lobes.
What is the Arcuate Fasciculus?
A neural pathway that connects speech and language cortical areas.
How is the thalamus classified in some literature?
As part of the basal ganglia (BG).
What does the sensory homunculus represent?
A topographical representation of the sensory distribution of the body in the cerebral cortex.
What are the names of the lobes in the cerebrum?
Frontal lobe, Parietal lobe, Temporal lobe, Occipital lobe, and Insular lobe/cortex.
What type of control does the pyramidal tract provide?
Conscious, voluntary control of body and face muscles.
What is another name for the primary motor cortex?
Motor strip.
What is another name for the Inferior Parietal Lobule?
Geschwind’s territory.
What happens when Broca's Area is damaged?
It results in nonfluent aphasia, where understanding of language is intact but speech production is affected.
What is the copyright year mentioned?
What type of circuitry is involved in the basal ganglia's function?
Cortico-striatal-cortical loop / basal ganglia-thalamocortical circuitry.
How does the thalamus contribute to consciousness?
By regulating the flow of information to the cortex, influencing alertness and awareness.
Which cranial nerves receive bilateral input from upper motor neurons (UMN)?
CN V, IX, X, XI.
What are the main functions of the Extrapyramidal Tract?
Regulate reflexes and maintain posture and tone, assisting the pyramidal system in achieving skilled movements.
What are the grooves in the cerebrum referred to as?
Sulci (singular = sulcus).
What did Paul Broca contribute to the study of language?
He related lesions and damage to deficits in speech and language.
What is the primary division of the brain that includes the cerebral hemispheres?
Telencephalon.
Which structures are less prone to unilateral weakness due to UMN lesions?
Jaw, larynx, pharynx, soft palate.
Where is the hypothalamus located in relation to the thalamus?
Below the thalamus (anterior and ventral).
What does the longitudinal fissure separate?
The left hemisphere from the right hemisphere.
What does the reticulospinal tract carry to the spinal cord?
Motor fibers.
What are the segments of the spinal cord?
Cervical, thoracic, lumbar, sacral, coccygeal.
What is a consequence of lesions to Lower Motor Neurons?
Paralysis and anaesthesia below the level of the injury.
What types of information does the superior colliculus receive?
Information from multiple senses: visual, auditory, and somatosensory.
Which cranial nerves receive innervation from the contralateral cortex?
Cranial nerves VII and XII.
What type of information does the spinal cord send out?
Motor information.
What is the prefrontal cortex responsible for?
Higher cognitive functions such as decision-making and social behavior.
What types of activities does the somatic system control?
It controls activities such as walking, talking, and other voluntary movements.
What is the primary function of the thalamus?
To serve as a relay station for all sensory information (except for smell) to the cerebral cortex.
How does the somatic system transmit sensory information?
Through sensory neurons that carry signals from the body to the central nervous system.
How does stimulation or damage to the Premotor Cortex affect behavior?
It reflects behaviors related to motor function but in a less specific and localized way than the PMC.
What is the focus of Functional Neuroanatomy?
Correlating brain anatomy to language behaviors.
What is the role of the mesencephalon?
It is involved in vision, hearing, motor control, sleep/wake, arousal, and temperature regulation.
How are the muscles of the body innervated?
By hundreds of thousands of motor units.
What is the role of the thalamus in processing information?
All information passes through the thalamus before being routed to the appropriate destination in the cerebral cortex for further processing and interpretation.
What does acetylcholine (ACh) do after being released?
It crosses the synaptic gap and binds to ACh receptors on the muscle fiber.
What are the two branches of the Autonomic Nervous System?
Parasympathetic Nervous System and Sympathetic Nervous System.
What are Brodmann Areas?
Areas of the brain assigned numbers by Brodmann based on cell structure.
What is the composition of white matter in the spinal cord?
Myelinated axons arranged in bundles/tracts/columns/pathways.
Which hemisphere processes speech and language?
The left hemisphere.
What is the effect of an UMN lesion on the lower face?
If an UMN lesion occurs on one side, the lower face loses its function due to lack of input.
What is the infundibulum?
The pituitary stalk that connects the hypothalamus to the pituitary gland.
Which side of the lower face is affected by an UMN lesion?
The contralateral side of the lower face is affected.
What type of matter is the corpus callosum primarily composed of?
White matter (myelinated axons).
What is the function of the premotor cortex?
It is involved in the planning of movements.
Where does the corticobulbar tract terminate?
On motor neurons within the brainstem of motor nuclei.
What are the two main divisions of the nervous system?
Central Nervous System and Peripheral Nervous System.
What is the Extrapyramidal Tract?
An indirect activation pathway that connects the cortex to the cranial/spinal cord nuclei.
What components make up the Central Nervous System?
The brain and spinal cord.
What is the corpus callosum?
A C-shaped bundle of myelinated axons that connects the left and right hemispheres.
What is decussation in the context of the nervous system?
A crossed tract of nerve fibers passing between centers on opposite sides of the nervous system.
What does the corticospinal tract carry?
Information from the cerebral cortex to the spinal cord.
Where do Lower Motor Neurons (LMNs) originate?
In the spinal cord.
What are the mounds in the cerebrum called?
Gyri (singular = gyrus).
What type of processing occurs in both hemispheres via the corpus callosum?
Auditory processing.
What is the role of the Myelencephalon?
It includes the medulla oblongata and the 4th ventricle.
What is the function of the Pyramidal System?
It is involved in voluntary motor control.
What does the Primary Somatosensory Cortex transmit?
Conscious sensations from sensory receptors in the head, neck, and body.
What do ascending tracts in the spinal cord do?
Transmit sensory information up the spinal cord to the brain.
What does the right hemisphere process in relation to speech?
Speech prosody, including melody, rate, and stress.
What types of information do spinal nerves carry?
Both sensory and motor information.
What cognitive functions are associated with the frontal lobe?
Attention, memory, reasoning, and personality.
What is the name of the first cervical vertebra?
C1, also known as the atlas.
What types of information does the thalamus process?
Sensory information (except for smell) and motor information.
How many lobes does the cerebellum have?
Three lobes.
What Brodmann areas correspond to the Primary Somatosensory Cortex?
Areas 1, 2, and 3.
What is the function of the anterior lobe of the cerebellum?
Regulating posture, gait, and truncal tone.
What is the primary function of the Peripheral Nervous System?
To connect the central nervous system to the limbs and organs.
What are motor neurons above the level of the synapse called?
Upper Motor Neurons (UMNs).
What is the primary function of tracts in the spinal cord?
They run up and down in the spinal cord.
What type of activities does the Extrapyramidal Tract primarily involve?
Many of the activities are inhibitory.
At what level does the decussation of the corticospinal tract occur?
At the level of the lower medulla.
What is the result of ACh binding to its receptors?
It leads to the endplate potential, initiating the muscle action potential and muscle contraction.
What is a consequence of lesions to Upper Motor Neurons?
Paralysis and anaesthesia below the level of the injury.
What does the hypothalamus influence?
Endocrine function via its attachment to the pituitary gland.
What does the central sulcus (Fissure of Rolando) separate?
The frontal lobe from the parietal lobe in each hemisphere.
What is the ratio of afferent to efferent signals in the cerebellum?
40:1.
Which part of the brain regulates homeostasis and is located in the diencephalon?
Hypothalamus.
What types of sensory information are primarily processed by the spinal cord?
Pain, touch, and temperature.
What type of cut is referred to as a transverse cut?
A horizontal cut.
What functions are associated with the spinal cord?
Sensory functions and motor functions.
Which division of the brain includes the medulla oblongata?
Myelencephalon.
What is the function of corticoreticular tracts?
They connect the cortex to the reticular formation, mainly contralaterally.
Where do Upper Motor Neurons (UMNs) travel to?
Down to the brainstem or spinal cord.
What does the posterior lobe of the cerebellum coordinate?
Skilled, sequential voluntary muscle activity.
What are some functions regulated by the hypothalamus?
Temperature control, hunger, thirst, and circadian rhythms.
What are the cingulate gyrus and parahippocampal gyrus part of?
The cortex.
What is the role of the flocculonodular lobe?
Receives information from the vestibular system.
What does the somatic nervous system control?
Voluntary movements and the transmission of sensory information.
Which part of the brain is associated with the limbic system?
Telencephalon.
What is the inner layer of the cerebrum composed of?
White matter, primarily made up of myelinated axons.
Where do descending fibers of the corticospinal tract synapse?
In the ventral gray matter of the spinal cord with lower motor neurons.
What happens if there is a stroke that damages the left hemisphere?
It results in paresis or paralysis of limb muscles on the right side and vice versa.
To what does the spinal cord send motor information?
To skeletal muscle for movement.
What does the lateral sulcus (sylvian fissure) separate?
The frontal and parietal lobes from the temporal lobe.
What is the role of the primary motor cortex?
It is involved in the planning and execution of voluntary movements.
What is the name of the ventricle associated with the pons and cerebellum?
4th ventricle.
What do the abbreviations ICP, MCP, and SCP stand for?
Inferior cerebellar peduncle (ICP), middle cerebellar peduncle (MCP), and superior cerebellar peduncle (SCP).
What is the primary function of the pituitary gland?
To make essential hormones.
What structure connects the third and fourth ventricles?
Cerebral aqueduct.
What is the effect of a lower motor neuron (LMN) lesion on facial function?
The same side of both the upper and lower face are affected.
Which division of the brain includes the midbrain?
Mesencephalon.
Which part of the brain is responsible for balance and coordination?
Cerebellum.
