Student Chapter 11

Motivation is an inner state that energizes people toward the fulfillment of a goal.

An instinct is a fixed pattern of behavior that is unlearned, universal in a species, and released by specific stimuli. Early 20th century psychology viewed behavior as biologically rooted in instincts.

Instincts were rejected because many 'instinctual' behaviors, such as hunger and fullness, are learned, shaped by experience, subject to individual differences, and influenced by culture.

Drive Theory posits that physiological needs create a state of tension that motivates individuals to fulfill those needs. It was initially used to explain basic biological functions such as eating, drinking, sleeping, and sexual activity. For example, food deprivation leads to hunger (a drive), which motivates the seeking and consumption of food, resulting in drive reduction.

Arousal theory suggests that people are motivated to achieve and maintain an optimum level of bodily arousal, which is neither too low nor too high. Each individual has differing levels of optimal arousal that they seek to achieve.

Incentive Theory posits that people are motivated to behave in ways that produce a valued inducement, which can include various external goals such as grades, money, or social recognition.

Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs is a psychological theory that categorizes human needs into a five-level pyramid. The levels, from bottom to top, are:

1. Physiological needs: Basic survival needs such as food, water, and shelter.
2. Safety needs: Security and protection from physical and emotional harm.
3. Belongingness and love needs: Social relationships, love, and a sense of belonging.
4. Esteem needs: Self-esteem, respect, and recognition from others.
5. Self-actualization: The realization of personal potential and self-fulfillment.

According to Maslow, lower needs must be satisfied before individuals can focus on higher-level needs.

The primary factors controlling hunger and eating include:

1. Levels of glucose in the bloodstream, monitored by the lateral and ventromedial hypothalamus.
2. Levels of protein, fat, and insulin, along with other hormonal activities associated with the liver, pancreas, and intestines.

The five basic tastes are Sweet, Sour, Salty, Bitter, and Umami.

A person's state of mind can influence their food preferences, as seen in American college students who reported eating more snack-type foods (like cake and chocolates) during times of stress, while consuming fewer meal-type foods (like meat, fish, fruit, and vegetables).

There is a universal and innate preference for sweet and salty foods among individuals.

External food cues include:

1. Smell - The aroma of food can trigger hunger and cravings.
2. Variety - A greater variety of food options can lead to increased consumption.
3. Time - The time of day can influence when and how much people eat.

Social influences on eating behavior include:

1. Eating in company - People tend to eat more when they are with others.
2. Duration at the table - The longer individuals stay at the table, the more they tend to eat.
3. Bingeing entertainment - Eating more occurs when engaging in binge-watching or similar activities.

Obesity is defined as having a surplus of body fat that causes a person to exceed their optimum weight by 20%.

Approximately 65% of American adults over age 25 are overweight, with about 33% classified as obese.

Obesity rates have increased from the 1980s to the present across various demographics, including men and women, young and old, and among different racial and educational backgrounds.

People who are obese are more likely to suffer from:

• Diabetes
• Heart disease
• High blood pressure
• High cholesterol
• Respiratory problems
• Arthritis
• Strokes
• Depression
• Pregnancy complications

People gain weight when they consume more calories than their bodies metabolize, leading to excess calories being stored as fat.

Genes are estimated to account for 40 to 75% of the BMI differences among people.

The set point is a level of weight toward which a person's body gravitates, while the settling point is a level of weight that can drift upward and downward over time in response to changes in behavior.

The global obesity epidemic is influenced by changes in eating and activity habits, often attributed to a 'toxic environment' that includes:

• Availability of fatty fast foods
• Vending machines offering sugar-filled soft drinks and snacks
• Sedentary office work
• Insufficient emphasis on physical education in schools
• Excessive time spent watching television or using devices

Anorexia nervosa is an eating disorder characterized by:

• Limiting food intake leading to emaciation.
• The highest fatality rate of any psychological disorder, with most deaths resulting from heart failure.
• A tendency for individuals to become compulsive about running and exercising.

The prevalence of anorexia nervosa is approximately 5 times higher among females (0.5 percent) compared to males (0.1 percent) in the United States, according to the National Institute of Mental Health (2017).

Bulimia nervosa is an eating disorder characterized by:

• Cycles of binge eating followed by purging.
• It is seldom life-threatening but can lead to significant health effects.
• Most sufferers maintain a normal weight, making it easier to hide the condition.
• Health consequences include erosion of tooth enamel, dehydration, intestinal damage, and nutritional imbalances.
• The prevalence is approximately 3 times higher among females than males.

Binge-eating disorder is characterized by binge eating without chronic purging. It is the most common eating disorder, affecting approximately 3% of U.S. adults in their lifetime. Individuals with this disorder are often overweight or obese, which necessitates treatment that addresses both the binge eating and associated obesity-related risk factors, such as diabetes and metabolic disorders.

Cultural factors contributing to eating disorders include:

• Cultural and peer pressure: Most eating disorders are prevalent in weight-conscious cultures.
• Media influence: The media plays a powerful role, particularly through the portrayal of slender female models, which can increase body dissatisfaction among women.
• Professional careers: Careers that promote being thin can also be associated with the development of eating disorders.

1. Need for affiliation: The desire to establish and maintain social contacts.

2. Need for intimacy: The desire for close relationships characterized by open and intimate communication.

Individuals vary in the strength of their need for affiliation; those with a high need for affiliation are generally more socially active compared to those with a low need.

The motivation for social-contact balance is to achieve a state of not too much and not too little social interaction, ensuring a healthy level of social engagement.

Benefits from affiliation include:

• Energy
• Attention
• Stimulation
• Information
• Emotional support Additionally, stress can heighten the need for affiliation, leading individuals to seek social connections, even online.

Self-disclosure is the sharing of intimate details about oneself with another person, which is essential for developing close relationships.

1. Reciprocation of self-disclosures: When one person shares, the other tends to share as well.

2. Sex differences in openness of communication: There may be variations in how different genders communicate intimately.

3. Increased self-disclosure as relationships grow over time: As relationships develop, individuals tend to share more intimate details.

Achievement motivation is a strong desire to accomplish difficult tasks, outperform others, and excel.

Individuals with a high need for achievement are hard-working, persistent, innovative, and future-oriented. They attribute their success to their abilities and efforts rather than external factors, and they crave success more than they fear failure.

• Fixed mindset: Belief that traits (e.g., intelligence) are unchangeable.
• Growth mindset: Belief that traits can develop with time and effort; high achievers often have a growth mindset.

High achievers set high but realistic goals and exert effort to meet them. They can have different attribution styles:

• Fixed ability: Attributing outcomes to intelligence or natural ability.
• Controllable factors: Linking outcomes to preparation, practice, and persistence.

The three interacting components of emotion are:

1. Internal physiological arousal
2. Expressive behavior in the face, body, and voice
3. Cognitive appraisal

The James-Lange theory proposes that emotion stems from physiological arousal triggered by an emotion-eliciting stimulus. In this model, the sequence is: a perceived event leads to physiological and behavioral responses, which then result in the emotional experience.

The Cannon-Bard theory proposes that an emotion-eliciting stimulus triggers both physiological arousal and the experience of emotion simultaneously, rather than one causing the other.

The Cannon-Bard theory challenges the James-Lange theory by asserting that bodily sensations alone cannot produce emotion and that emotions can be felt instantly before physiological responses occur.

The limitations include that physical changes are too general to distinguish between different emotions and that emotions can be experienced before the body has time to react.

The limbic system is an evolutionarily primitive set of neural structures that regulates some emotions. It includes the thalamus, hypothalamus, hippocampus, and amygdala, surrounding the brainstem.

When the amygdala is destroyed, rats lose the ability to react to harmful stimuli with fear, which typically manifests as freezing in place.

Yes, some emotions may be triggered before the brain has the opportunity to appraise the situation.

Research suggests that while some argue all emotions spark the same physiological arousal, others believe each emotion is associated with its own specific pattern of autonomic system activity. There is truth to both positions.

Schachter's two-factor theory of emotion proposes that emotion is based on both physiological arousal and a cognitive interpretation of that arousal.

People identify their emotions by observing the situation they are in and making an attribution for their arousal. If they attribute their arousal to a non-emotional source, they will experience less emotion, whereas attributing it to an emotional source leads to experiencing more of that emotion.

The common sense theory suggests that 'I tremble because I feel afraid', indicating that the conscious feeling of fear leads to autonomic arousal.

The James-Lange theory posits that 'I feel afraid because I tremble', meaning that autonomic arousal occurs first, followed by the conscious feeling of fear.

The Cannon-Bard theory states that 'The dog makes me tremble and feel afraid', suggesting that both the conscious feeling of fear and autonomic arousal occur simultaneously as a response to the stimulus.

In the Schachter-Singer theory, appraisal is crucial as it states 'I label my trembling as fear because I appraise the situation as dangerous', indicating that the interpretation of the situation influences the emotional experience.

Counterfactual thinking involves imagining alternative scenarios and outcomes that did not occur. It influences emotional reactions in the following ways:

• If the imagined outcome is better than the actual result, it can lead to feelings of disappointment, frustration, and regret.
• If the imagined outcome is worse, it may result in emotions ranging from mild relief to elation.
• The mood of an individual can also affect the type of counterfactual thinking they engage in.

The six basic or universal emotions are fear, anger, joy, disgust, surprise, and sadness. Each of these emotions is accompanied by a distinct facial expression, can be observed in infants and young children, and is found across all languages.

In the circumplex model, emotions are plotted based on two axes:

• X-axis: Ranges from Unpleasant (left) to Pleasant (right)
• Y-axis: Ranges from Mild (bottom) to Intense (top)

Different emotions are scattered across this model, indicating their pleasantness and intensity.