UNIT II

Psychological, family, social, and economic factors.

Opportunities and perceived risks differ between crime types, leading to varied offending.

Differences in levels of community involvement and support services.

Personal issues like running out of targets, getting older, or fear of getting caught.

It visually represents the importance of a controller in nullifying crime opportunities.

Locations that draw offenders specifically to commit crimes (e.g., drug markets, seedy bars).

Areas lacking guardianship, making crime unobservable (e.g., unattended car parks).

They create hiding spots for criminals.

Crime Prevention Through Environmental Design.

Crime rates are influenced by the availability of targets and the presence of guardianship in different neighborhoods.

Places attracting large crowds for legitimate activities that may also offer crime opportunities (e.g., sports stadia, shopping malls).

They can shift priorities and make crime less appealing.

Policies can address internal and external influences to deter criminal behavior.

Emphasizing behavior suppression over rehabilitation.

Social and economic factors, such as financial desperation due to unemployment.

He claims it is simply a 'description of crime not an explanation.'

Changing the environment to make committing a crime more difficult or less rewarding.

Crime rates fluctuate based on the varying effectiveness of the local judicial system.

Committing a crime is a choice, not something individuals are forced into.

The combination and application of security techniques within overall facility design.

It employs established security techniques within its framework.

It has limited consideration of psychological factors, such as mental health conditions.

Crime concentrates in those locations.

It highlights how individuals make decisions to commit crimes by weighing potential benefits and risks.

It is based on only three factors, overlooks broader societal issues, and neglects personal education and socio-economic status.

The role of reasoning in human behavior, viewing crime as the outcome of weighing possible rewards and downsides.

'Defensible Space,' which includes characteristics of dwellings that enhance community and surveillance.

It aids in understanding the importance of place in crime prevention efforts.

Within their awareness spaces, where they are comfortable and knowledgeable about opportunities and risks.

Getting married, suffering from an injury, or finding a job.

1. Whether or not to commit a crime. 2. Whether or not to select a particular target. 3. How frequently to offend. 4. Whether or not to desist from crime.

People weigh the benefits and risks of committing a crime.

Rational Choice Theory and Routine Activity Theory.

Crime rates are determined solely by the racial or ethnic composition of neighborhoods.

It assumes that all individuals have the same level of rationality.

They look for environmental cues in their surroundings to decide whom or what to target.

Stronger social bonds between potential offenders and their community reduce the probability of committing crimes.

C. Ray Jeffery in 1971.

They assess if the target is worth the risk of getting caught.

It assumes that increasing the severity of punishment will always deter crime, regardless of the individual's circumstances.

It facilitated problem analysis at the community level using the SARA model.

When the probability of getting caught outweighs the perceived benefits of the crime.

Environmental changes.

It can help understand and predict the distribution of crime in space and time.

An area with low economic opportunity and high unemployment.

Increased opportunities for crimes like robbery and assault.

It explains how different opportunities and risks in neighborhoods affect crime rates.

Value, Inertia, Visibility, and Access.

Offenders consider whether they know the area well before committing a crime.

UK journalist Nick Ross.

Boundaries between neighborhoods or zones where offenders can act anonymously.

The development of crime hotspots.

Allows for the mapping and visual representation of crime patterns.

The occurrence of crime events as the accumulation of several circumstances.

Potential offenders check for the presence of people nearby who could stop them.

A motivated offender has the capacity and willingness to commit a crime, without needing a purely psychological reason.

People around a potential offender can significantly impact their decisions to commit crimes.

Environmental circumstances, not inherent criminality.

Explaining crime rather than criminality.

Situational Crime Prevention.

To focus on reducing crime and associated harms.

They attract petty crimes.

It can guide the development of policies that deter criminal behavior by making the consequences of crime less appealing.

The importance of place, as location can impact whether a crime occurs.

It connects attractive targets with the circumstances in which offenders discover them.

Peer pressure can compel individuals to commit crimes more often.

Environmental criminology.

In 1976, in the work 'Crime as Opportunity'.

Any person can serve as a capable guardian, not just friends, relatives, or law enforcement.

It enhances problem-solving capability for existing developments.

Crime Opportunity Theory.

It leads to a higher crime rate due to reduced visibility.

Moral and ethical considerations.

The built environment and how it shapes the geographic distribution of crime.

They focused too much on the 'badness' of offenders rather than opportunities for crime.

It can lead to overcrowding and pickpocketing.

The concept of Situational Crime Prevention (SCP).

A target for the offender and the absence of a guardian.

Natural Access Control Design.

Committing one type of crime does not mean a person will commit another type.

A practical, experiment and evidence-based approach.

They have limited visibility and entry/exit points.

For police resources and crime prevention efforts.

Edges refer to the boundaries of areas where people live, work, shop, or seek entertainment.

Key locations such as home, work, school, shops, and entertainment.

A need for money or other resources can lead them to commit crimes.

C. Ray Jeffery.

Who commits crime, why they commit it, what crimes they commit, and where and when.

A motivated offender, a desirable target, and the absence of a capable guardian.

It illustrates how offenders select targets and define means to achieve their goals.

How crimes are distributed across different locations.

It may encourage trespassing and illegal activities.

As sensible decision makers who choose specific situations to commit crimes.

They engage with criminal justice policymakers and front-line practitioners.

Nodes, Paths, and Edges.

Oscar Newman in 1972.

It requires a problem-solving approach tailored to the specific crime situation.

A shift in routine activities where citizens spent more time away from home, leading to unattended targets.

It posits that deterrence is ineffective because individuals cannot predict the consequences of their actions accurately.

If a target does not have value, the offender will not be motivated to commit the crime.

It overemphasizes rationality, ignoring emotions and impulses that can lead to irrational behavior.

When crimes occur, including trends during certain times of the day or week.

Using scientific methods over ethical or clinical approaches.

Crimes like racial attacks, robberies, or shoplifting are more likely to occur at edges due to the mixing of people from different neighborhoods.

Ethics, costs, public acceptability, politics, aesthetics, and unintended consequences.

If individuals believe they can evade detection, they may offend more frequently.

Social Change and Crime Rate Trends: A Routine Activity Approach.

Increasing effort, increasing risk, reducing rewards, reducing provocations, and removing excuses.

B.F. Skinner's operant conditioning model.

The role of situations in crime, highlighting institutional factors as better predictors of absconding than personal characteristics.

Inertia measures the difficulty level in moving or transporting the targeted object.

The areas individuals become familiar with around their routine activity nodes.

Through interaction with others in a process of communication.

Manipulating the environment to eradicate opportunities for crime.

Insiders usually commit crimes closer to their own neighborhoods, while outsiders find it safer to offend at the edges.

Situational approaches that limit opportunities for crime.

Increased vulnerability to street crimes and accidents.

Marcus Felson and Lawrence E. Cohen.

From poverty and inequality to situations arising in routine activities of victims and offenders.

It may oversimplify the complexities of human behavior and ignore social and environmental factors.

It refers to the lack of individuals or systems (like law enforcement or surveillance) that can deter an offender from committing a crime.

Future problems.

Crime Prevention Through Environmental Design.

An evidence-based, problem-solving approach that embraces empirical research.

Places where people travel to and from, which can generate crime both within and nearby.

Urban crime stems from anonymity and social fragmentation.

There isn't a single Rational Choice Theory that fits all crimes; each crime requires separate analysis.

As a public health issue, tackling it like an epidemic rather than isolated cases.

Criminal behavior is learned, not inherited.

It is a significant part, with geography as a core discipline.

To describe products that are attractive and easy to steal: Concealable, Removable, Available, Valuable, Enjoyable, and Disposable.

A preferred route or 'path'.

They create confusion, making it difficult to spot suspicious behavior.

Jeffery's focus on reducing opportunities for crime and Newman's concrete prevention techniques.

They collect data, generate hypotheses, and build testable models.

Changing institutional structures and operations.

It limits the effectiveness of Rational Choice Theory by acknowledging that individuals may not have complete information or the ability to make fully rational decisions.

Because family members or friends are in different locations.

A biophysical phenomenon explainable like other natural events.

Products that are attractive and easy to steal.

The movement patterns that influence crime clusters in time and place.

To change the factors that lead to crime, making it less likely to occur.

Favorable positioning of targets and absence of guardians can instigate crime, even without motivated offenders.

Crime frequency is ultimately a choice made by the individual.

Crime is not caused by societal evils or social problems but can be addressed through modest interventions.

Default, Aesthetic, Powerful, Principled, Effortless, Rewarding.

Using environmental design to reduce crime opportunities.

The default condition is secure rather than insecure.

The flow of people to maximize control and surveillance.

They often become shelters for criminal activities.

They are the routes people take in their daily activities, influencing where they may become victims.

The Jill Dando Institute of Crime Science (JDI).

By viewing crime situations as broader than just the built environment and emphasizing redesigning crime-prone situations.

Creating spaces that encourage territorial control.

Young individuals unable to find legitimate financial rewards may turn to subcultures for achieving goals.

Natural Surveillance Design.

It shows how all three environmental criminological theories are connected.

An informed research agenda considering all crucial factors.

It is principled and acceptable to all, often increasing liberty and freedom.

A table of 25 techniques grouped into five categories.

Modifying the environment or design of objects to reduce the risk of crime.

By creating secure spaces while minimizing fortress-like constructions.

Access control protocols.

Burglary, rape, serious assault, robbery, and homicides.

It has a powerful preventive mechanism that is not easily circumvented.

Differentiating between domestic violence, alcohol-related violence, or gang violence.

Maintenance.

They can be costly and may not provide complete protection if relied upon solely.

Strengthening the security of potential targets to deter criminals.

Concrete examples and guidelines that can be translated into policies and regulations.

Alarm systems.

As an epidemic, using scientific methods to address it.

Reactive, focusing on empowering residents to defend their space.

To deter offenders by setting traps.

Focusing policing efforts on specific locations with high crime rates.

Situational crime prevention, which focuses on reducing opportunities for crime.

Real and symbolic barriers, clearly defined areas of influence, enhanced surveillance opportunities.

Integrating security measures into the overall design of spaces.

By increasing patrols.

It refers to being aesthetically neutral or pleasing.

By breaking crime down into specific types requiring targeted understanding and prevention strategies.

Reduction of crime, nuisance behavior, and fear of crime.

It brings preventive rewards greater than its cost.

Places and things that can be targets of criminal activity or locations where crime takes place.

Using the physical environment for protection dates back to prehistoric times.

High-value targets.

Encryption.

Proactive, focusing on reducing opportunities for crime.

Making the crime less attractive or accessible.

It makes it more difficult for offenders to carry out crimes by fostering a sense of ownership.

To eliminate rationalizations or justifications for their actions.

Combining basic crime deterrence concepts with strategically applied security hardware.

ATMs equipped with security cameras and anti-skimming devices.

Advanced locking mechanisms.

Fingerprint scanners.

Through education, regulations, police presence, and public transport availability.

They can facilitate unintentional nuisance and criminal behavior.

Applying principles of environmental design to reduce crime opportunities.

A more limited approach termed defensible space.

Demonstrating the value of incorporating non-social science disciplines into criminology.

To deter criminal activity.

Incident response plans.

Systematic analysis of specific crime problems, not abstract notions of 'crime' in general.

Territoriality Design.

It takes little or no time and effort to engage.

Target-hardening cars with immobilizers.

Much crime is opportunistic and contextual.

Through prevention, disruption, rapid detection, and management of known offenders.

To prevent offenders from being tempted or incited into criminal acts.

It encourages users to respect their surroundings by enhancing and managing the built environment.

Creating a sense of territoriality among residents.

By increasing visibility in certain spaces or products.

Visibility and the ability for legitimate users to monitor activities.

To test the effectiveness of various crime reduction interventions.

Territoriality, natural surveillance, image, milieu.

Implementing strategies that reduce opportunities for crime by altering the immediate environment.

Practical, operational advice, such as low-rise buildings having less crime.

Using statistical models and GIS to identify high-risk areas and predict where crimes are likely to occur.

Natural surveillance, access control, territoriality, maintenance.

Making the attempt less worth it for the offender.

By deterring criminal behavior through environmental design.

By reducing their appeal or increasing the difficulty of committing a crime.

To reduce criminal opportunities by incorporating design features that deter crime.

To enhance vigilance against potential criminal activity.

Security and creates a more pleasant and functional space.

Designing open and well-lit public spaces.

To evaluate vulnerabilities in targets.

Enhance lighting.