p.6
Carboxylic Acids and Derivatives
What is the solubility of amides in water?
Amides with 5 carbons or less are soluble due to hydrogen bonding.
p.7
Biochemistry: Carbohydrates, Proteins, and Lipids
What process forms carbohydrates?
Photosynthesis, using CO2, H2O, and chlorophyll in the presence of sunlight.
p.5
Carboxylic Acids and Derivatives
What distinguishes saturated fatty acids from unsaturated ones?
Saturated fatty acids contain no double bonds, while unsaturated fatty acids do.
p.2
Characteristics of Covalent Bonds
What are the two types of intermolecular forces of attraction (IMF) involved in boiling and melting substances?
Disrupting IMFs between particles and breaking IMFs between similar molecules while forming IMFs between dissimilar molecules.
p.2
Characteristics of Covalent Bonds
What effect does branching have on the boiling point of organic compounds?
T_b increases with decreased branching because branching decreases molecular surface area.
p.1
Characteristics of Covalent Bonds
How does bond length change with atomic size?
Bond length decreases with decreasing atomic radius/size.
p.2
Functional Groups in Organic Compounds
What is the significance of functional groups in organic compounds?
Functional groups determine where a chemical reaction is most likely to occur and influence physical properties.
p.9
Biochemistry: Carbohydrates, Proteins, and Lipids
What happens to proteins when exposed to strong acids?
They are coagulated and can undergo irreversible denaturation.
p.8
Biochemistry: Carbohydrates, Proteins, and Lipids
What is the role of fats and oils in the body?
They are oxidized to produce energy and serve as a source of reserve food and cushioning for organs.
p.8
Biochemistry: Carbohydrates, Proteins, and Lipids
What are the essential components of food?
Carbohydrates, proteins, fats, minerals, water, and vitamins.
p.9
Biochemistry: Carbohydrates, Proteins, and Lipids
What are the two categories of drugs?
Pharmacodynamic agents and chemotherapeutic agents.
p.4
Properties and Reactions of Alcohols and Phenols
What are alcohols and phenols?
Hydrocarbon compounds with at least one hydrogen replaced by a hydroxyl group, and phenyl rings with a hydroxyl substituent.
p.1
Covalent Bonds and Hybridization
What is the valence of carbon according to structural theory?
Carbon has a valence of four and is tetravalent.
p.6
Carboxylic Acids and Derivatives
Which carboxylic acids are soluble in water?
Carboxylic acids with five or fewer carbons.
p.9
Biochemistry: Carbohydrates, Proteins, and Lipids
What is the colloidal nature of proteins?
Proteins form colloidal dispersions with water and can pass through filter paper but not membranes.
p.4
Properties and Reactions of Alcohols and Phenols
How are alcohols named in IUPAC nomenclature?
Identifying the parent chain, adding alkyl + alcohol, and using the suffix -ol.
p.1
Covalent Bonds and Hybridization
What type of bonds are formed in organic compounds?
Covalent bonds, resulting from the sharing of electrons.
p.9
Biochemistry: Carbohydrates, Proteins, and Lipids
What does the presence of protein in urine indicate?
It indicates damage to the membranes in the kidneys, possibly nephritis.
p.4
Properties and Reactions of Alcohols and Phenols
What is the boiling point trend of alcohols compared to hydrocarbons?
Alcohols have relatively higher boiling points than corresponding hydrocarbons due to intermolecular hydrogen bonding.
p.6
Carboxylic Acids and Derivatives
Why are carboxylic acids with five or fewer carbons soluble in water?
They can form hydrogen bonds with water.
p.8
Biochemistry: Carbohydrates, Proteins, and Lipids
What are waxes?
Esters of high molecular weight monohydroxy alcohols.
p.1
Covalent Bonds and Hybridization
What leads to the formation of pi (π) bonds?
Side-to-side overlap of p and d orbitals.
p.8
Biochemistry: Carbohydrates, Proteins, and Lipids
What distinguishes simple lipids from compound lipids?
Simple lipids are esters of fatty acids, while compound lipids contain additional groups such as phosphoric acid, carbohydrates, and nitrogen compounds.
p.10
Biochemistry: Carbohydrates, Proteins, and Lipids
What is protein denaturation?
Disruption of the tertiary structure.
p.9
Biochemistry: Carbohydrates, Proteins, and Lipids
What are carbohydrates primarily composed of?
Carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen.
p.5
Characteristics of Covalent Bonds
Why do amines have higher boiling points than alkanes of similar molecular weight?
Due to the possibility of hydrogen bonding in primary and secondary amines.
p.6
Carboxylic Acids and Derivatives
What factors influence the relative reactivity of carbonyl compounds?
Electron density, leaving group ability, and electronic/steric effects of the R-group.
p.10
Biochemistry: Carbohydrates, Proteins, and Lipids
What are the three types of lipids?
Oils, waxes, phospholipids.
p.1
Covalent Bonds and Hybridization
What leads to the formation of sigma (σ) bonds?
Head-to-head overlap of atomic or hybrid orbitals.
p.3
Aliphatic Hydrocarbons: Alkanes, Alkenes, and Alkynes
What is the defining feature of alkynes?
They contain at least one carbon-carbon triple bond.
p.6
Carboxylic Acids and Derivatives
How do the boiling points of esters compare to those of carboxylic acids?
Esters have lower boiling points than carboxylic acids for comparable molecular weights.
p.1
Characteristics of Covalent Bonds
What is the inductive effect in organic compounds?
Distortion of electron distribution due to strong electron-donating or electron-withdrawing groups.
p.8
Enzymes and Their Functions
What is an apoenzyme?
The protein part of an enzyme.
p.10
Biochemistry: Carbohydrates, Proteins, and Lipids
What are lipids defined by?
Their water-repelling property.
p.2
Characteristics of Covalent Bonds
How does molecular size affect the boiling point (T_b) of an organic compound?
T_b increases with increasing molecular size due to larger surface area.
p.4
Properties and Reactions of Alcohols and Phenols
How does the acidity of alcohols vary?
Alcohols are more acidic than terminal alkynes but less acidic than water, with acidity decreasing from primary to tertiary alcohols.
p.4
Properties and Reactions of Alcohols and Phenols
What are the products of oxidizing primary and secondary alcohols?
Primary alcohols convert to carboxylic acids, and secondary alcohols convert to ketones.
p.3
Aliphatic Hydrocarbons: Alkanes, Alkenes, and Alkynes
How do alkyl halides compare to alkanes in terms of polarity?
Alkyl halides are slightly more polar than alkanes due to the C–X bond.
p.5
Carboxylic Acids and Derivatives
What is the IUPAC nomenclature for carboxylic acids?
Substituents + root + suffix –oic + 'acid'.
p.9
Biochemistry: Carbohydrates, Proteins, and Lipids
What is denaturation of a protein?
It refers to the unfolding and rearrangement of the secondary and tertiary structures of a protein without breaking the peptide bonds.
p.7
Biochemistry: Carbohydrates, Proteins, and Lipids
What are carbohydrates classified as?
Polydroxy aldehydes and ketones, including sugars, starches, and cellulose.
p.4
Properties and Reactions of Alcohols and Phenols
How are ethers named in IUPAC nomenclature?
Using the format (substituents) + -oxy- + parent chain.
p.7
Biochemistry: Carbohydrates, Proteins, and Lipids
What is sucrose?
The most common disaccharide, consisting of a glucose unit and a fructose unit.
p.1
Characteristics of Covalent Bonds
How do steric effects influence acidity?
Bulky substituents can enhance acidity by favoring the removal of protons.
p.6
Carboxylic Acids and Derivatives
What is the order of reactivity for carbonyl compounds?
RC–Cl > RC–O–CR' > RC–OR' > RC–NH2 (most reactive to least reactive).
p.2
Characteristics of Covalent Bonds
What is the primary reaction mechanism for alkenes?
Alkenes primarily react through their π bond, acting as nucleophiles.
p.8
Biochemistry: Carbohydrates, Proteins, and Lipids
What is the difference between catabolism and anabolism?
Catabolism produces energy from nutrients, while anabolism stores nutrients or produces proteins and other substances.
p.5
Characteristics of Covalent Bonds
Why do aldehydes and ketones have higher boiling points than ethers and alkanes?
Because of the polar carbonyl group.
What type of reaction do aldehydes and ketones typically undergo?
Nucleophilic addition to the carbonyl bond.
p.4
Properties and Reactions of Alcohols and Phenols
Why are low-molecular weight alcohols soluble in water?
Because they can form hydrogen bonds with water.
p.8
Enzymes and Their Functions
What are activators and inhibitors in enzyme activity?
Activators increase enzyme activity, while inhibitors interfere with it.
p.10
Biochemistry: Carbohydrates, Proteins, and Lipids
What are the main functions of proteins?
Catalysis, structure, movement, defense, regulation, transport, and storage.
How do alkyl groups affect the basicity of amines in the gas phase?
They enhance the amine's basicity by inductive effect.
p.7
Biochemistry: Carbohydrates, Proteins, and Lipids
What are lipids?
Fatlike substances that include fats, oils, and waxes.
p.7
Biochemistry: Carbohydrates, Proteins, and Lipids
What distinguishes fats from oils?
Fats are saturated, while oils contain unsaturated fatty acids.
p.7
Biochemistry: Carbohydrates, Proteins, and Lipids
What does the iodine number indicate?
The number of double bonds in a fat or oil.
p.7
Biochemistry: Carbohydrates, Proteins, and Lipids
What is the saponification number used for?
To determine the molecular weight of a fat by measuring the amount of KOH that reacts with it.
p.6
Carboxylic Acids and Derivatives
What happens to the acidity of carboxylic acids when electron-withdrawing groups (EWG) are present?
The acidity is enhanced due to dispersion of electron density and stabilization of the –COO- group.
p.2
Characteristics of Covalent Bonds
How does polarity influence the boiling point of organic compounds?
T_b increases with increasing polarity of the molecule due to strong dipole-dipole IMFs.
p.3
Aliphatic Hydrocarbons: Alkanes, Alkenes, and Alkynes
How do the boiling and melting points of alkynes compare to alkenes?
Alkynes have similar boiling and melting points to those of corresponding alkenes.
p.2
Aliphatic Hydrocarbons: Alkanes, Alkenes, and Alkynes
What are alkanes characterized by?
Alkanes contain only C-C single bonds and C-H bonds.
p.10
Biochemistry: Carbohydrates, Proteins, and Lipids
What are the four levels of protein structure?
Primary, Secondary, Tertiary, Quaternary.
p.2
Aliphatic Hydrocarbons: Alkanes, Alkenes, and Alkynes
What is the IUPAC nomenclature for alkanes?
It consists of substituents + root + -ane.
p.4
Properties and Reactions of Alcohols and Phenols
What are the three classes of amines?
Primary (1°), secondary (2°), and tertiary (3°) amines based on the number of hydrogen atoms replaced by alkyl/aryl groups.
p.1
Characteristics of Covalent Bonds
What is π-electron delocalization or resonance?
A concept that applies to conjugated systems, explaining bond strength and stability.
p.8
Enzymes and Their Functions
What role do coenzymes play in enzyme activity?
They are required for certain enzymes to act effectively and often contain B vitamins.
p.4
Properties and Reactions of Alcohols and Phenols
How are amines named in IUPAC nomenclature?
Using the format (substituents) + root + suffix -amine.
p.8
Biochemistry: Carbohydrates, Proteins, and Lipids
What are the two classes of nucleic acids?
Ribonucleic acids (RNA) and deoxyribonucleic acids (DNA).
What is the trend in basicity of amines in the aqueous phase?
3° < 2° < 1° < NH3, due to steric hindrance from bulky groups.
p.8
Biochemistry: Carbohydrates, Proteins, and Lipids
How are proteins metabolized in the body?
They are hydrolyzed to amino acids, used for tissue building, or broken down to ammonia, carbon dioxide, and water.
p.7
Biochemistry: Carbohydrates, Proteins, and Lipids
What is a zwitterion?
A molecule that contains both an amine group and a carboxyl group, forming a double ion.
p.6
Carboxylic Acids and Derivatives
What is the reaction of carboxylic acids with bases?
They form carboxylate salts.
p.3
Aliphatic Hydrocarbons: Alkanes, Alkenes, and Alkynes
What is the IUPAC nomenclature for alkynes?
Substituents + root + -yne.
p.7
Biochemistry: Carbohydrates, Proteins, and Lipids
What are the two main types of carbohydrates?
Monosaccharides (one sugar unit) and polysaccharides (two or more units).
p.1
Covalent Bonds and Hybridization
What is the relationship between bond strength and s-character?
The greater the s-character, the stronger the bond.
p.4
Properties and Reactions of Alcohols and Phenols
What defines ethers in terms of structure?
Ethers contain two hydrocarbon groups attached to a central oxygen atom (R–O–R').
p.3
Aromatic Hydrocarbons and Electrophilic Substitution
What is Hückel’s Rule for aromatic compounds?
A compound is aromatic if it is planar, fully conjugated, monocyclic, and has (4n+2) electrons.
p.3
Aromatic Hydrocarbons and Electrophilic Substitution
What type of reactions do aromatic hydrocarbons typically undergo?
Electrophilic aromatic substitution.
p.2
Characteristics of Covalent Bonds
Why are alkanes insoluble in water?
Because they are nonpolar and cannot interact with the strong IMFs of water.
p.5
Characteristics of Covalent Bonds
How do the boiling points of amines compare to those of alcohols?
Amines have lower boiling points than corresponding alcohols due to weaker hydrogen bonds.
p.10
Biochemistry: Carbohydrates, Proteins, and Lipids
What components make up a lipid?
3 fatty acids and 1 glycerol.
p.7
Biochemistry: Carbohydrates, Proteins, and Lipids
What are reducing sugars?
Sugars that can be oxidized by Cu2+, identified in Fehling's and Benedict's tests.
p.2
Characteristics of Covalent Bonds
What does Markovnikov's rule state regarding electrophilic addition to alkenes?
The hydrogen of an attacking electrophile will add to the alkene carbon with the greater number of hydrogen substituents.
p.7
Biochemistry: Carbohydrates, Proteins, and Lipids
What are proteins made of?
Amino acids linked through peptide bonds.
p.8
Biochemistry: Carbohydrates, Proteins, and Lipids
What is the primary source of energy in the body?
Carbohydrates, which are converted to glucose.
p.10
Biochemistry: Carbohydrates, Proteins, and Lipids
What is the main function of nucleic acids?
Involved in heredity, protein synthesis, and as energy carriers.
p.8
Biochemistry: Carbohydrates, Proteins, and Lipids
How can nutrients be classified?
According to their functions: provision of energy, body-building materials, and regulation of body processes.
p.8
Biochemistry: Carbohydrates, Proteins, and Lipids
What are derived lipids?
Lipids obtained by the hydrolysis of simple or compound lipids, such as fatty acids and sterols.
p.9
Biochemistry: Carbohydrates, Proteins, and Lipids
How does heat affect proteins?
Gentle heating causes reversible denaturation, while vigorous heating causes irreversible denaturation.
p.5
Characteristics of Covalent Bonds
What makes amines moderately polar compounds?
The presence of the C–N bond.
p.7
Biochemistry: Carbohydrates, Proteins, and Lipids
What is starch and its significance?
A polysaccharide made up of many glucose units, important as a nutrient for humans.
p.7
Biochemistry: Carbohydrates, Proteins, and Lipids
What is the primary structure of a protein?
The kind and order of amino acids in the protein.
p.3
Aliphatic Hydrocarbons: Alkanes, Alkenes, and Alkynes
What type of reactions can alkyl halides undergo?
Nucleophilic substitution or elimination reactions.
p.11
Functional Groups in Organic Compounds
What is the prefix for halides?
fluoro-, chloro-, bromo-, iodo-
