bio_lcu_2_A24

Examples of coenzymes include adenosine triphosphate (ATP), cobalamins, and coenzyme A.

Cellular respiration is the process by which cells extract and use the energy contained in organic compounds.

ADP + Pi → ATP

2 acetyl CoA

The concentration of protons in the thylakoid space is higher than the concentration in the stroma.

Chemiosmosis is the process by which ATP is produced in the mitochondria and chloroplasts, utilizing the energy from the proton gradient created by electron transport chains.

O2 captures the electrons along with H+ to form H2O.

Electrons from glucose are transferred to electron shuttles (NAD+ → NADH and FAD → FADH2), which donate electrons to the electron transport chain (ETC) and create a H+ gradient that leads to ATP production.

CO2 enters the cycle and is reduced to glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate.

The oxidation of one gram of fat produces twice as much ATP as one gram of carbohydrate.

Fatty acids undergo beta oxidation to form acetyl coA.

The reaction center contains a pair of chlorophyll a molecules and a primary electron acceptor that removes the excited electron from chlorophyll.

The net yield per glucose is 2 ATP, 2 NADH, and 2 pyruvate.

4 ATP.

Protons are pumped into the intermembrane space, creating a high concentration that flows down their gradient into the matrix, releasing energy used to phosphorylate ADP to ATP.

To convert solar energy to chemical energy, occurring in the thylakoids.

32 ATP.

NADPH carries high energy electrons which are used as reducing power in the Calvin cycle.

To convert CO2 into sugar, occurring in the stroma.

2 pyruvate (3C), 2 ATP, and 2 NADH.

4 CO2

An energy-coupling mechanism that uses energy stored in the form of a H+ ion gradient across a membrane to drive cellular work, such as the synthesis of ATP.

Chlorophyll a, chlorophyll b, and carotenoids.

The electrons drop in free energy, and the energy released is used to pump protons from the matrix into the intermembrane space, producing an electrochemical gradient.

AMP (Adenosine Monophosphate) is formed when ADP loses another phosphate group, and it can be converted back to ADP and ATP.

Reduction means gain of electrons.

They cycle from the reaction center to a primary acceptor along an electron transport chain.

The phosphorylation of ADP to ATP occurs in the matrix.

In fermentation, NAD+ is produced from NADH without ATP production, and the final electron acceptor is pyruvate or acetaldehyde, whereas in respiration, the final electron acceptor is oxygen.

Oxygen acts as the final electron acceptor in the electron transport chain, allowing for the production of ATP.

6 CO2 are released from one glucose molecule during the Krebs Cycle.

Oxidation of organic compounds + O2 → CO2 + H2O + energy (e.g., C6H12O6 + 6O2 → 6CO2 + 6H2O + energy). Energy is released as electrons move from organic compounds to O2, the final electron acceptor in respiration.

High ATP and citrate produced by the Krebs cycle inhibit phosphofructokinase.

1. Electron flow down an electron transport chain (an exergonic process) and the creation of an electrochemical proton gradient with 2) ATP production (an endergonic process).

This process is exergonic.

Coenzyme A is involved in the first step of the Krebs cycle, particularly in the introduction of the acetyl group into the cycle for energy production.

The Electron Transport Chain (ETC) is embedded in the inner mitochondrial membrane and is comprised of enzyme complexes that serve as electron carriers.

They travel via an electron transport chain (ETC), falling to a lower energy state in a stepwise manner, releasing energy used to produce ATP by photophosphorylation.

This process is endergonic.

Adenosine Triphosphate.

6 CO2 and 32 ATP.

Protons are pumped into the thylakoid space, creating a high concentration that flows down their gradient into the stroma, releasing energy used to phosphorylate ADP to ATP.

2 electrons, 2 hydrogen ions, and 1/2 oxygen molecule.

Glycolysis occurs in the cytoplasm of the cell.

Oxidative phosphorylation is the final stage of cellular respiration where ATP is produced using the energy from electron transport and chemiosmosis.

10 NADH are produced from one glucose molecule during the Krebs Cycle.

90% of the cellular ATP (26 - 28 moles).

Low ATP and high AMP activate phosphofructokinase.

This process is endergonic.

Photosystems are composed of an antenna complex with several hundred chlorophyll molecules and a reaction center containing a pair of chlorophyll a molecules.

AMP, ADP, and ATP.

It makes up the difference in ATP usage since the Calvin cycle uses more ATP than NADPH.

Oxidation means loss of electrons.

ATP synthase allows protons to diffuse back across the membrane, which is an exergonic process that fuels the endergonic process of ATP synthesis.

Fermentation is the anaerobic catabolism of organic nutrients, producing ATP in the absence of O2, primarily through glycolysis.

Chloroplasts are mainly found in mesophyll cells.

ATP is produced by photophosphorylation, where ADP and inorganic phosphate combine to form ATP.

In the cytoplasm.

In the mitochondrial matrix.

Photosynthesis is comprised of light-dependent reactions and the Calvin cycle.

1. Photosystem I (PSI) - contains chlorophyll a, type P700, absorbs energy at 700 nm. 2) Photosystem II (PSII) - contains chlorophyll a, type P680, absorbs energy at 680 nm.

NADH and FADH2 donate electrons to the electron transport chain (ETC) after being reduced from NAD+ and FAD, respectively.

In thylakoid membranes.

Electrons get elevated to an excited state.

Only ATP.

It goes to a higher energy state and gets trapped by the primary electron acceptor.

ATP is produced by oxidative phosphorylation using the energy released during the resolution of the electrochemical gradient.

FADH2 has a lower free energy than NADH, meaning electrons enter the electron transport chain at a lower energy point.

Photosynthesis uses visible light in the range of 400 - 700 nm.

The proton gradient is generated by the electron transport chain (ETC).

Chloroplasts contain their own DNA and ribosomes, and are surrounded by a double phospholipid bilayer.

The stroma contains photosynthetic enzymes and thylakoid membrane sacs.

The starting materials needed for the cycle to continue.

32 ATP.

Substrate - phosphate + ADP → ATP + substrate - occurs in glycolysis and the Krebs cycle

NADP+ is the final electron acceptor, and it is reduced to NADPH by accepting electrons and protons.

Cellular respiration can extract energy from other organic molecules, such as fats.

ATP is the energy source in the Calvin cycle.

NADPH is the reducing agent in the Calvin cycle.

The proton gradient is created in three ways: 1) Water is split and protons are released into the thylakoid space, 2) Protons are pumped into the thylakoid space when electrons are transported, 3) Protons in the stroma are removed when NADP+ is reduced to NADPH.

ATP and NADPH

Light can be considered as a wave or photons, which are discrete packages of energy.

ATP synthase is embedded in the inner mitochondrial membrane.

The electrons increase in potential energy as they move from water to sugar.

The two types of fermentation are alcohol fermentation, which occurs in yeast and some bacteria, and lactic acid fermentation, which occurs in human muscles during exercise and in some bacteria.

Cellular respiration yields 16 times more ATP per glucose than fermentation.

Fermentation produces ATP along with byproducts such as lactic acid or ethanol, depending on the type of fermentation.

This process is exergonic.

The enzyme responsible is NADP+ reductase.

Photosynthesis is a redox reaction.

ATP is produced from ADP and Pi using the enzyme ATP synthase, which is embedded in the inner mitochondrial membrane. The energy for this process comes from the proton gradient generated by the electron transport chain (ETC).

Electrons from water.

The electron cycles back to fill the e- hole in the P700 chlorophyll molecule.

Acetyl coA binds with oxaloacetate to form citrate.

Carbon atoms are released as CO2.

The total ATP produced from one glucose molecule after the Krebs Cycle is 4.

In the inner mitochondrial membrane.

The antenna complex absorbs photons and passes energy from chlorophyll to chlorophyll.

It gives off energy.

1. Energy requiring phase: glucose is converted to glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate using 2 ATP. 2) Energy producing phase: glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate is converted to pyruvate, producing 4 ATP and 2 NADH.

The process is called chemiosmosis.

Carbon Fixation, where three CO2 enter the cycle and are attached to ribulose bisphosphate by the enzyme Rubisco.

3-phosphoglycerate receives a phosphate group from ATP to form 1,3-bisphosphoglycerate, which is then reduced to glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate (G3P) by NADPH.

Cellular respiration is the process by which cells convert glucose and oxygen into energy, carbon dioxide, and water.

Red and blue light are the best for photosynthesis.

Six molecules of G3P are produced from three CO2 and three ribulose bisphosphate.

ATP is produced by substrate-level phosphorylation, with GDP converting to GTP as an intermediate step.

Up to 38 ATP molecules can be produced from one glucose molecule during cellular respiration, depending on the efficiency of the process.

ATP and NADPH

Photosystems II and I

Only PS I.

No, it generates ATP without producing NADPH or oxygen.

The phosphorylation of ADP to ATP occurs in the stroma.

The main stages of cellular respiration are glycolysis, the Krebs cycle, and oxidative phosphorylation.

Electrons are removed from acetyl coA to reduce NAD+ to NADH and FAD to FADH2.

Carbon fixation, where CO2 is converted into organic material.

2 pyruvate are converted to 2 acetyl CoA (2C), producing 2 CO2 and 2 NADH.

ADP (Adenosine Diphosphate) is formed when ATP loses a phosphate group, releasing energy for cellular processes.

Water splits into ½ O2, 2H+, and 2e-.

The energy is inversely proportional to the wavelength.

3 ATP (1.5 ATP each for 2 FADH2).

Fermentation produces 2 ATP per glucose molecule, generated only by glycolysis.

Light supplies the energy for this process.

The outer membrane is very permeable, while the inner membrane has selective permeability.

It is reduced to sugar using NADPH as the electron source.

O2, because it is highly electronegative.

ATP synthase is a protein embedded in the thylakoid membrane that catalyzes the reaction ADP + Pi → ATP, using the energy from the resolution of the proton gradient.

The phosphorylation of glucose makes it more reactive and traps it in the cell when it is charged.

10 NADH, yielding 25 ATP (2.5 ATP each).

Water is split, and electrons and H+ are transferred to CO2, reducing it to sugar.

One G3P exits the cycle while five G3P are used to regenerate ribulose bisphosphate, requiring additional ATP.

Rubisco is the enzyme that attaches CO2 to ribulose bisphosphate during the Carbon Fixation phase.

The primary purpose of the Krebs cycle is to produce electron carriers (NADH and FADH2) that are used in the electron transport chain.

Thylakoids are membrane sacs that may be stacked into grana and contain chlorophyll.

4 CO2, 2 ATP, 6 NADH, and 2 FADH2.

6CO2 + 12H2O + light → C6H12O6 + 6O2 + 6H2O

CO2 serves as the carbon source.