What was Japan's initial approach towards the Ainu people?
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Active assimilation to make Ainu like Japanese people.
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What was Japan's initial approach towards the Ainu people?
Active assimilation to make Ainu like Japanese people.
What did Japan implement to suppress Ainu culture?
Forbidding Ainu to speak their language and wear their clothing.
What happened to the Ainu language as a result of Japanese policies?
It became nearly extinct.
What are the three generations of language shift in immigrant families?
1st generation: fluent in heritage language; 2nd generation: bilingual; 3rd generation: fluent in local majority language but not in heritage language.
What was a significant political factor affecting Native American languages in the US?
Forced placement of Native Americans in boarding schools where only English was allowed.
What are some social factors that contribute to the loss of heritage language?
Social pressures, economic factors, social status, inter-marriage, and influence of school.
What factors help in maintaining a heritage language?
Size and concentration of language groups, arrival of new immigrants, media availability, isolated communities, visits to home country, and committed parents.
What was the selected official language (OL) for Indonesia after independence?
A form of 'Malay' used in trading, renamed 'Indonesian'.
What is language defined as?
A system of written or oral communication by a country, people, or community, structured with grammar and vocabulary.
What characterizes the fourth generation in terms of language?
They are mainly fluent in the local majority language but curious about their heritage language.
Why was Dutch not chosen as the official language for Indonesia?
It had negative colonial associations.
How is language maintenance tied to personal confidence?
It is linked to economic stability and personal confidence.
What is one advantage of choosing Malay as the official language?
It is ethnically-neutral and mostly used as an L2 lingua franca.
What is a dialect?
A form of language spoken by a particular group, considered as a single entity for some purpose.
How was the Malay language already familiar to Indonesians before it became the official language?
It was already used in some schools and popular novels.
What does the Invariant System Hypothesis propose?
A language consists of a set of words (vocabulary) and a set of rules (grammar) used identically by a sizable population of speakers.
What group does the Malay language belong to?
The Austronesian group.
What is a major problem with the Invariant System Hypothesis?
Each person has their own unique rules and vocabulary for speaking the language.
What role did the Malay language play in the independence movement?
It was used as a common language, giving it positive prestige.
What does the Mutual Intelligibility Hypothesis state?
If two varieties of a language can understand each other, they are the same variety; if not, they are independent languages.
What are the four functions that national languages (NLs) should have?
Unifying, Separatist/Autonomy, Prestige, and Frame-of-reference functions.
What socio-political reasons influenced the classification of Hindi and Urdu?
Anticipation from independence led to political parties forming along religious lines, recognizing them as different languages despite mutual intelligibility.
How did the breakup of Yugoslavia affect the classification of Serbian and Croatian?
Nationalists claimed Serbian and Croatian are separate languages, although they were previously considered varieties of a single language, Serbo-Croatian.
What approach did India take regarding official languages?
It made 12 official languages and reorganized province boundaries based on demographics.
What is the stance of Chinese leadership regarding the classification of different varieties of Chinese?
They call for not classifying different varieties as separate languages to prevent separatism.
What was a significant outcome of Indonesia's language planning?
Standardization of Indonesian and significant vocabulary development.
What is unique about the Ryukyuan language in relation to Japanese?
Ryukyuan is mutually unintelligible to Japanese, despite being considered part of the same language family.
How did Singapore manage its multilingual population?
By promoting English and successfully integrating it into globalization.
What framework is used to analyze language maintenance in the UK?
C.O.D framework (Capacity, Opportunity, Desire).
What does 'Capacity' refer to in the context of language maintenance?
Language is well developed.
What is a key factor in determining whether a variety of speech is classified as a language or a dialect?
Political and religious leaders often dictate these classifications.
What does 'Opportunity' signify in the C.O.D framework?
Opportunity to use language in the community.
What does the phrase 'A language is a dialect with an army and a navy' imply?
It suggests that the recognition of a language often depends on political power.
What does 'Desire' indicate in the context of language use?
Strong desire to speak the language in the community.
What is the mutual intelligibility hypothesis?
It posits that dialects of a language are generally mutually intelligible.
What is the status of Hindi language maintenance in the U.S.A?
Hindi is not well maintained.
What are isoglosses?
Lines that indicate where a dialect occurs.
What is a significant factor affecting Hindi language transmission among Generation 1 parents?
Parents often don’t help their children learn Hindi.
What is a dialect continuum?
A process where dialects blend into one another, making it hard to identify where one ends and another begins.
What is an official language?
A language used in government, schools, laws, and any public setting.
Why is there limited opportunity for Hindi use in South Asian communities in the U.S.A?
Hindi is not widely used; English is used as a lingua franca.
What is the action of borrowing words from other languages called?
Loan words.
What are the four properties of dialects?
What is a national language?
A language that is represented by the population and serves to unify the population.
What positive attitude exists towards Hindi in the U.S.A?
Attitudes toward Hindi are positive.
Which languages do many languages tend to borrow from?
English, French, Russian, Latin, Ancient Greek, and Sanskrit.
What role do socio-economic factors play in language recognition?
They influence the recognition of a language for profit in economics, politics, law, and education.
What are the official and national languages of Paraguay?
Official Language: Spanish, National Language: Guarani.
What does Macaulay mean by 'languages and dialects have both a unifying function and a separatist function'?
They help unite a group but also create a distinct community.
What is Language Purism?
The action of getting rid of most foreign loan or borrowed words from a national language.
What are the official and national languages of Tanzania?
Official Languages: Swahili and English, National Language: Swahili.
What are religious dialects?
Different forms of a language spoken by various religious groups.
What are the three reasons Macaulay gives to argue that Standard English is not superior?
What language did North Korea create to replace South Korean language?
Munhwao.
How do social dialects differ?
They vary based on the social groups to which people belong.
What are the official and national languages of Singapore?
Official Languages: Malay, Mandarin, Tamil, English; National Language: Malay.
How does social class relate to non-standard pronunciations according to Macaulay?
Lower class individuals tend to use non-standard linguistic varieties more than higher class speakers.
What percentage of Munhwao is native Korean?
90%.
What is the function of speech in communication?
To convey information or to initiate and maintain social relations.
What is the first step in language planning?
Status Planning - giving special roles to certain languages/varieties.
What is Language Purification?
The action that new words should only be created internally, while old borrowed words are not purged.
What does corpus planning involve?
Further developing the languages selected in status planning.
What did the French Academy aim to do regarding English loan words?
Block new English loans from being used in place of existing French words.
What are some activities involved in corpus planning?
Developing vocabulary, creating dictionaries, deciding pronunciations, describing grammatical rules, and choosing writing systems.
What script did Turkey switch to in 1928 for writing Turkish?
Roman alphabet.
What is the goal of promoting new national and official languages?
To spread knowledge through mass education, media, and positive incentives.
What was the Soviet government's concern regarding the Roman alphabet?
It would help a new pan-Turkic movement.
What is a common issue in bad language planning?
Exclusion of certain language speakers leading to social unrest and conflict.
What script was ordered for all languages in the Soviet Union in the 1930s?
Cyrillic alphabet.
What happened in Pakistan after independence regarding language planning?
West Pakistan declared Urdu as the national language and English as the official language, causing unrest among speakers of other languages.
What are the three ways of writing Azeri after Azerbaijan's independence?
Cyrillic script, Arabic script, and Roman script.
What was the outcome of language planning in Sri Lanka?
The decision to make Sinhala the only official language led to riots and deaths among Tamil speakers.
What negative association does the Cyrillic script have in Azerbaijan?
Russian domination.
What identity did Taiwan develop under Japanese rule?
A new Taiwanese and anti-Japanese identity.
What was forbidden for the Ainu ethnic group in Japan?
To speak their language and wear their clothing.
