What are the main components of the cardiovascular system (CVS)?
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Heart, blood vessels, and blood.
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What are the main components of the cardiovascular system (CVS)?
Heart, blood vessels, and blood.
What primarily determines the O2 carrying capacity in blood?
Haemoglobin (Hb)
What is the morphology of red blood cells in camelids?
Camelid erythrocytes are oval, flat, and lack central pallor, unlike the typical biconcave disc observed in most mammals.
How can cells be separated from the plasma in blood?
Cells can be separated from the plasma by centrifugation.
Where are red blood cells (RBCs) stored?
RBCs are stored in the spleen.
What are some examples of acquired primary cardiovascular disorders?
Examples include haemorrhage due to trauma, acquired clotting disorders, primary cardiac diseases such as myocarditis, myopathy, acquired valvular disease, and parasitic infections like heartworm (Dirofilaria immitis) and Strongylus vulgaris.
What are the two main categories of cardiovascular disturbances in veterinary medicine?
Primary and Secondary
What is haematopoiesis?
The formation of blood cellular components.
What happens to the spleen in horses during exercise?
In horses, splenic contraction occurs during exercise.
What is the primary function of the cardiovascular system (CVS)?
The primary function of the CVS is transport of O2 and CO2, nutrients, hormones, waste products, and heat.
Do mammalian red blood cells have nuclei and organelles?
No, mammalian red blood cells lack nuclei and organelles.
What is the approximate size range of red blood cells?
4 – 9μm
What instrument is used to measure total plasma proteins?
A refractometer.
How do erythrocytes and leukocytes develop?
They develop by mitosis and differentiation from stem cells.
What are the main components of plasma?
Plasma comprises 92% water, 7% protein, and 1% other substances.
What are the types of primary cardiovascular disturbances?
Congenital and Acquired
Why is cardiovascular function essential for life and health?
Cardiovascular function is essential for life and health because any impairment leads to dysfunction.
Which types of animals have nucleated red blood cells?
Non-mammals such as birds, lizards, fish, and frogs have nucleated red blood cells.
What shape do red blood cells typically have in dogs, cats, horses, and humans?
Biconcave discs
What type of tissue is blood classified as?
Blood is classified as a type of specialized connective tissue.
What is the reference range for total plasma proteins?
Approximately 5 – 9 g/dl.
Which electrolytes are dominant in plasma?
Na+ and Cl- are the dominant electrolytes in plasma.
What causes secondary cardiovascular disturbances?
As a consequence of non-cardiovascular disorders or diseases
What might high total plasma protein levels indicate?
High total plasma protein levels may indicate haemoconcentration (e.g., dehydration) or increased globulin production (e.g., inflammation or infection).
How do red blood cells differ in shape in ruminants, pigs, and camelids compared to other species?
They are flatter.
How are the pulmonary and systemic circulations arranged?
The pulmonary and systemic circulations are arranged in series.
What are some examples of congenital cardiac defects?
Valve defects and defects of the wall of the heart.
What is the matrix of blood called?
The matrix of blood is called plasma.
What is the purpose of blood cross-match tests?
To detect the presence of haemagglutinating and haemolysing antibodies in the plasma of donor and recipient animals.
What are some causes of low total plasma protein levels?
Low total plasma protein levels may be caused by loss of protein via the kidneys (protein losing nephropathy), loss of protein via the gastrointestinal system (protein losing enteropathy), loss of lymph, chronic or severe blood loss, or lack of plasma protein production by the liver.
How is systemic circulation to different organ systems arranged?
Systemic circulation to different organ systems is arranged in parallel.
What characteristic allows red blood cells to move through capillaries?
Red blood cells are flexible and able to deform.
What are congenital defects of the major vessels?
They are abnormalities in the structure of the major blood vessels present from birth.
What is another name for haematocrit?
Packed cell volume (PCV)
What are the suspended cells found in blood?
The suspended cells in blood are red blood cells (RBCs; erythrocytes), white blood cells (WBCs; leukocytes), and platelets (thrombocytes).
What is erythropoiesis?
The production of red blood cells (RBCs).
What is involved in a major cross-match test?
Donor RBCs are mixed with recipient plasma.
How does nutritional status affect erythropoiesis?
The activity of erythropoietic cells is greatly affected by nutritional status.
Why are older red blood cells more readily damaged?
Older red blood cells are less flexible.
What is the general pathway of blood through the circulatory system?
In general, blood only passes through one set of capillaries before returning to the heart.
What is the primary function of red blood cells (erythrocytes)?
The primary function of red blood cells is the transport of O2 and CO2.
What type of congenital disorders affect blood clotting?
Clotting disorders.
What does haematocrit represent?
The fraction of total volume represented by erythrocytes.
What is involved in a minor cross-match test?
Donor plasma is mixed with recipient RBCs.
Why are RBCs incapable of cell division?
Because they have no nucleus.
What hormone controls erythropoiesis?
Erythropoietin (EPO)
Which nutritional deficiencies can affect hemoglobin content?
Deficiencies in protein, iron, copper, and B vitamins (B2, B6, B9 (folic acid), and B12) can affect hemoglobin content.
What is a portal system in the circulatory system?
A portal system involves two capillary beds.
What is the lifespan of red blood cells?
Red blood cells have a limited lifespan of 2 to 6 months.
How is oxygen (O2) transported in the blood?
Oxygen is transported via haemoglobin (oxyhaemoglobin).
How can haematocrit be measured?
Using a microhematocrit or automated analyser.
What is the composition of plasma?
Plasma comprises 92% water, 7% protein, and 1% other substances.
From where do new RBCs originate?
From the division of nucleated stem cells.
Where is erythropoietin (EPO) primarily produced?
In the kidneys
In what forms can carbon dioxide (CO2) be transported in the blood?
Carbon dioxide can be transported in solution, as bicarbonate, or bound to protein (carbamino compounds).
What is poikilocytosis?
Poikilocytosis is the variation in red blood cell shape.
What factors can cause variations in PCV?
Changes in the total number of cells or the size of cells.
What role does globulin play in the body?
Globulin is important in immune responses.
What determines blood groups in animals?
Alloantigens on the surface of erythrocytes.
Where are RBCs primarily produced in the fetus?
In the liver and spleen.
What triggers the secretion of erythropoietin (EPO) in the kidneys?
Decreased PaO2 and renal hypoxia
Which animals commonly exhibit poikilocytosis?
Goats and cattle commonly exhibit poikilocytosis.
What is the function of albumin in the blood?
Albumin helps maintain fluid balance.
Which erythrocyte alloantigens are important in dogs?
Aa 1 and Aa 2.
Where does RBC production occur in adults?
Within the bone marrow.
What does RBC count measure?
The total number of red blood cells per unit volume of blood.
What is the effect of erythropoietin (EPO) on the bone marrow?
It increases RBC mass
What are the primary functions of blood in the human body?
The primary functions of blood include transportation of gases, nutrients, and waste products; regulation of body temperature, pH, and fluid balance; and protection against infections and blood loss.
What are secondary cardiovascular dysfunctions?
Secondary cardiovascular dysfunctions arise as a result of disease or disorder elsewhere in the body.
What is anisocytosis?
Anisocytosis is the variation in red blood cell size.
Which erythrocyte alloantigen is important in cats?
AB.
Why is fibrinogen important?
Fibrinogen is important in blood clotting and inflammation.
What does [Hb] represent in a blood count?
The concentration of hemoglobin in whole blood.
What is the average lifespan of an erythrocyte?
Approximately 120 days.
What type of blood is required for haematological examinations?
Liquid blood.
How does blood contribute to the regulation of body temperature?
Blood helps regulate body temperature by distributing heat throughout the body and by increasing or decreasing the flow of blood to the skin, where heat can be lost or retained.
What is anaemia?
Anaemia is a condition characterized by a deficiency in the number or quality of red blood cells, which leads to reduced oxygen transport in the body.
How can severe vomiting or diarrhea affect the cardiovascular system?
Severe vomiting or diarrhea can lead to loss of water and electrolytes, which can cause cardiac arrhythmias and heart failure.
Which animals commonly exhibit anisocytosis?
Cattle commonly exhibit anisocytosis.
What is the lifespan of red blood cells (RBCs) in cats and cattle?
In cats, RBCs have a lifespan of 2 months, while in cattle, they have a lifespan of 6 months.
Which erythrocyte alloantigens are important in horses?
Aa and Qa.
What is HCT in a blood count?
The relative proportion of red blood cells to plasma.
Where are erythrocytes primarily produced?
In the bone marrow.
What is the anticoagulant of choice for blood sample collection?
Ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid (EDTA).
In what ways does blood protect the body?
Blood protects the body by clotting to prevent blood loss and by carrying white blood cells and antibodies that fight infections.
What are common symptoms of anaemia?
Common symptoms of anaemia include fatigue, weakness, pale skin, shortness of breath, and dizziness.
What is septic shock or endotoxaemia?
Septic shock or endotoxaemia is a condition where bacterial infection (bacteraemia) is present in the bloodstream.
Why does the metabolic machinery of RBCs decline with age?
The metabolic machinery of RBCs declines with age because they lack DNA and RNA, which are required for protein synthesis.
What does MCV indicate in a blood count?
The average volume (size) of red blood cells.
What hormone regulates the production of erythrocytes?
Erythropoietin.
What are the two methods for collecting blood samples?
Syringe and needle or self-drawing evacuated tubes (Vacutainers).
What role does blood play in maintaining pH balance in the body?
Blood maintains pH balance by using buffers to neutralize acids and bases, ensuring that the pH of body fluids remains within a narrow, healthy range.
How is anaemia diagnosed?
Anaemia is diagnosed through a complete blood count (CBC) test, which measures levels of red blood cells, hemoglobin, and hematocrit.
How can an anaesthetic overdose affect the cardiovascular system?
An anaesthetic overdose can depress the central nervous system and, in the case of barbiturates, also depress the heart's ability to pump.
What happens to the cell membrane of RBCs as they age?
As RBCs age, their cell membrane becomes more fragile and they may rupture as they pass through capillaries, especially in the spleen.
Where are old or damaged erythrocytes broken down?
In the spleen and liver.
What does MCH measure in a blood count?
The amount of hemoglobin per red blood cell.
What should be done to a Vacutainer tube after collecting blood to ensure thorough mixing?
Invert the tube several times.
How does blood facilitate the transport of nutrients and waste products?
Blood transports nutrients from the digestive system to cells throughout the body and carries waste products from cells to the kidneys, liver, and lungs for excretion.
What are some causes of anaemia?
Causes of anaemia include iron deficiency, vitamin B12 deficiency, chronic diseases, and genetic conditions like sickle cell anaemia.
Where are damaged erythrocytes engulfed by macrophages?
Damaged erythrocytes are engulfed by macrophages in the liver, spleen, and bone marrow.
How is Mean Corpuscular Haemoglobin (MCH) calculated?
MCH is calculated using the formula: [Hb] (x10g/l) / RBC (x10^12/l).
What does MCHC represent in a blood count?
The average concentration of hemoglobin in a given volume of blood.
What happens to the hemoglobin from broken down erythrocytes?
It is recycled; iron is reused and the rest is converted to bilirubin.
What is the role of hemoglobin in diagnosing anaemia?
Hemoglobin levels are measured to determine the severity of anaemia, as hemoglobin is the protein in red blood cells that carries oxygen.
What happens to heme and iron when erythrocytes are degraded?
When erythrocytes are degraded, heme is converted to bilirubin and iron is reused.
What does Mean Corpuscular Haemoglobin Concentration (MCHC) measure?
MCHC measures the concentration of haemoglobin in a given volume of packed red blood cells, calculated as [Hb] / Hct.
What does an abnormally low MCH or MCHC indicate?
An abnormally low MCH or MCHC indicates a deficit in haemoglobin synthesis.
What does 'Hct' stand for and how is it expressed?
Hct stands for haematocrit and is expressed as a fractional value (e.g., 0.55 instead of 55%).
How does deviation from normal haematocrit (Hct) affect the blood's ability to carry oxygen?
Deviations from normal haematocrit affect the blood's ability to carry oxygen.
What is the impact of haematocrit on blood viscosity?
Haematocrit affects the viscosity of blood, which in turn affects the resistance to flow and the effort that must be exerted by the heart.
What haematocrit levels are associated with anaemia?
Anaemia is associated with haematocrit levels of 10%, 20%, and 30%.
What are the primary functions of blood?
Transportation, homeostasis/regulation, and protection.
What haematocrit levels are considered normal?
Normal haematocrit levels are around 40%.
What substances does blood transport?
Oxygen (O2), carbon dioxide (CO2), nutrients, hormones, waste products, and heat.
What haematocrit levels are associated with polycythaemia?
Polycythaemia is associated with haematocrit levels of 50%, 60%, and 70%.
How does blood contribute to homeostasis?
By regulating body temperature and pH levels.
What conditions can lead to decreased haematocrit levels?
Conditions such as haemorrhage, haemolysis, iron deficiency, bone marrow disorder, chronic renal disease, and overhydration can lead to decreased haematocrit levels.
What are the protective functions of blood?
Immunity and clotting.
How can you estimate the approximate blood volume in an animal?
By dividing the body weight by 12.
What conditions can lead to increased haematocrit levels?
Conditions such as dehydration, splenic contraction, response to living at altitude, and blood doping & EPO administration can lead to increased haematocrit levels.
