What is resorption atelectasis?
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It occurs when obstruction prevents air from reaching distal airways, causing alveoli in the affected area to collapse.
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What is resorption atelectasis?
It occurs when obstruction prevents air from reaching distal airways, causing alveoli in the affected area to collapse.
What are the major disorders associated with obstructive lung disease?
Emphysema, Chronic bronchitis, Asthma, Cystic Fibrosis.
What is emphysema?
A lung condition that causes shortness of breath due to damage to the air sacs in the lungs.
What are the possible obstructions that can cause resorption atelectasis?
Mucous plugs, tumors, and foreign bodies.
What causes laryngeal papillomas?
Human papillomavirus (HPV) types 6 and 11 (low-risk).
What is pneumoconiosis?
Lung disorders caused by inhalation of mineral dusts.
What happens as silicosis progresses?
Nodules coalesce into hard collagenous scars.
What is the primary treatment for laryngeal papillomas?
Surgical excision, including laser ablation.
What causes laryngeal papillomas?
Human papillomavirus (HPV) types 6 and 11 (low-risk).
What characterizes restrictive lung diseases?
Reduced compliance and decreased total lung capacity.
What type of immunity controls 95% of primary tuberculosis infections?
Cell-mediated immunity.
What is the characteristic feature of Ghon complex?
Involvement of lymph nodes.
What is the defect in cystic fibrosis?
Abnormal function of an epithelial chloride channel protein.
What do lung lesions from primary tuberculosis eventually become?
Localized, fibrocalcified nodules.
What is the etiology of Sarcoidosis?
Unknown, but theories include disordered or exaggerated immune response, genetic predisposition, and exposure to environmental agents.
What is lung injury often caused by?
Inflammation.
What is the most common type of laryngeal cancer?
Laryngeal Squamous Cell Carcinoma.
What is adenocarcinoma?
Adenocarcinoma is a type of cancer that forms in the glands and can occur in many different parts of the body.
What is the histological characteristic of chronic bronchitis in large airways?
Mucus hypersecretion.
What type of granuloma is associated with Ghon complex?
Necrotizing granuloma.
What happens during the late phase of asthma?
Recruited leukocytes and inflammatory cells damage the epithelium, leading to airway remodeling and thickened/narrowed airways.
What is fibrosis?
Fibrosis is the formation of excess fibrous connective tissue in an organ or tissue as a reparative or reactive process.
Which gene encodes the defective chloride channel protein in cystic fibrosis?
CFTR (cystic fibrosis transmembrane conductance regulator) gene.
How is the hypersensitivity and increased resistance induced by primary tuberculosis reflected?
By a positive tuberculin skin test.
What percentage of cases does progressive primary tuberculosis occur in?
Approximately 5% of cases, mostly due to impaired immunity.
What does the clinical course of ARDS depend on?
Severity.
Is there firm evidence to suggest Sarcoidosis is caused by an infectious agent?
No, there is no firm evidence to suggest this.
What is the main pathology associated with ARDS?
Diffuse alveolar damage.
What causes the swelling of larger airways in chronic bronchitis?
Edema fluid and a layer of mucinous or mucopurulent secretions.
What factors determine the survival in laryngeal squamous cell carcinoma?
Location and stage of the cancer.
What are the types of pneumonia?
Community-Acquired Pneumonia, Nosocomial (hospital-acquired) pneumonia, Gram-negative rods, Staph aureus (usually methicillin-resistant).
What happens to the mucous gland layer in chronic bronchitis?
It thickens.
What laboratory tests are used for diagnosing sarcoidosis?
No definitive diagnostic test.
What is the function of the lungs?
Supplying O2 to and removing CO2 from blood in capillaries of alveoli.
What is the most prevalent chronic occupational disease in the world?
Silicosis.
What is the pathogenesis of cystic fibrosis?
Reduced Cl- secretion into respiratory tract lumen leading to increased reabsorption of Na+ ions and water.
Where are the defective chloride channels found in cystic fibrosis?
Exocrine gland epithelium.
How do bacilli spread in progressive primary tuberculosis?
Via airways, leading to an acute bacterial pneumonia-like disease, and via systemic blood vessels.
What is the treatment for ARDS?
Supplemental oxygen therapy and mechanical ventilator.
What are the outcomes of primary tuberculosis?
Healed lesions (organisms not viable), Latent lesions (dormant organisms), Progressive primary tuberculosis.
What is silicosis?
A lung disease caused by inhaling crystalline silica dust.
What are the noxious or irritating inhaled substances that can lead to chronic bronchitis?
Tobacco smoke, dust, grain, cotton, and silica.
What is formed in the alveoli due to inflammatory mediators in ARDS?
Hyaline membranes.
What is the pathogenesis of Atopic asthma?
It shows evidence of allergen sensitization and immune activation.
What is often used for diagnosing sarcoidosis?
Transbronchial lung biopsy.
What is the primary feature of obstructive lung diseases?
Decreased expiratory flow rate.
What is the role of the mucociliary blanket?
It helps in the removal of foreign particles and microorganisms from the respiratory tract.
What are asbestos bodies?
Golden brown, fusiform or beaded rods.
What is the outcome of miliary disease in progressive primary tuberculosis?
It may be fatal.
What is the overall mortality rate of ARDS?
38.5%.
What are the occupational exposures that can lead to silicosis?
Mining, stone cutting, and ceramics production.
What is the histological feature of sarcoidosis?
Non-necrotizing granulomas.
What is the impact of new therapies on cystic fibrosis?
They increase life expectancy.
How does reduced Cl- secretion affect mucus in cystic fibrosis?
It makes the mucus more concentrated and viscid, leading to obstruction.
What does I.P.F. stand for?
Idiopathic Pulmonary Fibrosis.
What percentage of primary lung tumors are carcinomas?
Approximately 95%.
How do asthma attacks usually subside?
Spontaneously within a few hours or with treatment.
What are the characteristics of 'blue bloaters' in chronic bronchitis?
Productive cough, significant COPD with outflow obstruction, hypoxia, hypercapnia, and cyanosis.
What is atelectasis?
Incomplete expansion or collapse of lung parenchyma.
What are the constitutional features of tuberculosis?
Fatigue, weight loss, low-grade fever, night sweats.
What are the main types of pulmonary infections?
Bacterial and viral infections.
What are the common occupations at risk of silicosis?
Miners, quarry workers, and workers in the construction industry.
What is primary tuberculosis?
Tuberculosis in previously unexposed people.
What can severe lung disease lead to?
Severe disease can impair oxygenation of blood, leading to respiratory failure.
What causes limitation of airflow in obstructive lung diseases?
Partial or complete obstruction.
What is a characteristic of Atopic asthma?
It has a genetic predisposition.
What is a characteristic feature of squamous cell carcinoma?
Keratin pearl formation.
Why is sarcoidosis diagnosed by exclusion?
Because other diseases can also produce non-necrotizing granulomas.
What is the most frequently diagnosed major cancer?
Lung cancer.
What is the composition of asbestos bodies?
Asbestos fiber core coated with iron-containing protein.
What is mesothelioma?
A rare, rapidly fatal cancer of mesothelial cells.
What is the pathogenesis of Idiopathic Pulmonary Fibrosis (I.P.F.)?
It involves abnormal wound healing, leading to excessive scarring of the lung tissue.
What is a common underlying risk factor for emphysema and chronic bronchitis?
Cigarette smoking.
What are the other 5% of primary lung tumors?
Bronchial carcinoids (neuroendocrine), Mesotheliomas, Spindle cell malignancies, Benign tumors.
What are the characteristic structures seen in sarcoidosis histology?
Schaumann bodies and Asteroid bodies.
What are the potential complications associated with chronic bronchitis?
Recurrent infections and respiratory failure.
How does atelectasis affect blood oxygenation?
It reduces oxygenation of blood.
What are vocal fold nodules associated with?
Smoking or singers (singer’s nodes).
What happens in pneumonia?
The air sacs, or alveoli, of the lungs fill up with fluid or pus.
What is compression atelectasis?
Lung collapse due to pressure in the pleural cavity.
What is the abbreviation for progressive massive fibrosis?
PMF.
What percentage of people with sarcoidosis recover with little residual effect?
65 - 70%.
What are the common treatments for asthma?
Anti-inflammatory drugs, particularly glucocorticoids, and bronchodilators.
What is the most common form of extrapulmonary TB?
Cervical lymphadenitis, also known as scrofula.
What are the pulmonary features of tuberculosis?
Productive cough, hemoptysis, pleuritic pain.
Which organ is almost always involved in primary tuberculosis?
Lungs.
At what age is lung cancer usually diagnosed?
50 or older.
What are the symptoms of silicosis?
Shortness of breath, cough, and chest pain.
What are patients with pure emphysema often referred to as?
“Pink puffers”.
What proportion of deaths in the US does pulmonary infections account for?
Approximately one-sixth.
What does atelectasis predispose to?
Infection.
How is Non-atopic asthma characterized?
It shows no evidence of allergen sensitization.
What is sarcoidosis?
A multisystem disease characterized by non-necrotizing granulomas in many organs.
What is the average life expectancy after diagnosis of mesothelioma?
12 - 18 months.
What are the potential complications linked to silicosis?
Pulmonary hypertension, cor pulmonale, increased susceptibility to infection, and double the risk of cancer.
What can cause fluid effusion leading to compression atelectasis?
Heart failure.
What percentage of people with sarcoidosis experience permanent lung or visual dysfunction?
20%.
What may be the result of vocal fold nodules?
Chronic irritation or overuse.
At what stage do most patients develop shortness of breath in silicosis?
Progressive massive fibrosis (PMF) stage.
What are the common diagnostic tests for pneumonia?
Blood tests, Chest X-ray/CT, Pulse oximetry, Sputum test.
What is the duration of treatment for TB disease?
4 to 9 months.
What are the clinical features of cystic fibrosis related to the lungs?
Chronic bronchitis, bronchiectasis, lung abscesses.
In which individuals may tuberculosis be asymptomatic?
Immunocompetent individuals.
Why are individuals with asthma more susceptible to dental caries and candidiasis?
Due to reduced salivary flow.
What may precede squamous cell carcinoma (SCC) in the lungs?
Squamous metaplasia or dysplasia.
What is the linear correlation with lung cancer?
Smoking.
What is the initial site of involvement in primary tuberculosis?
Ghon focus.
What percentage of patients with mesotheliomas lack a history of asbestos exposure?
20%.
How common is oral TB?
Rare, especially in immunocompromised individuals.
Is squamous cell carcinoma more common in men or women?
More common in men.
Why do patients with pure emphysema hyperventilate but have less hypoxia?
Due to decreased oxygen exchange.
How has the toll of deaths from pulmonary infections changed during the COVID pandemic?
It has risen.
What is the most common lung involvement in sarcoidosis?
Bilateral hilar lymphadenopathy.
Where does mesothelioma arise?
In the pleura and rapidly encases the lungs.
What is cor pulmonale?
Right-sided heart failure due to lung disease.
What condition involves the leakage of air and can lead to compression atelectasis?
Pneumothorax.
What does CIS stand for in the context of lung tumors?
Carcinoma-in-situ.
What percentage of people with sarcoidosis develop progressive fibrosis and cor pulmonale?
15%.
How does cessation of smoking affect the risk of lung cancer?
It decreases the risk, but it never returns to baseline levels.
What is bronchiectasis in the context of cystic fibrosis?
Permanent dilation of the bronchi.
How is oral TB usually acquired?
Usually as a secondary infection to pulmonary disease via infected sputum.
What is the characteristic feature of granulomas in primary tuberculosis?
Central caseation - caseous necrosis.
What is squamous cell carcinoma closely correlated with?
A smoking history.
Where else can malignant mesothelioma occur besides in asbestos workers?
Occasionally in members of household of asbestos workers and in the general public.
What are the two patterns of involvement in pneumonia?
Lobar and Bronchopneumonia.
What drugs are considered first-line anti-TB agents?
Isoniazid (INH), rifampin (RIF), ethambutol (EMB), pyrazinamide (PZA).
What does emphysema affect?
Alveoli.
What causes secondary (reactivation) tuberculosis?
Reactivation of bacilli in dormant lesions following reduced host resistance.
Can silicosis progress even after exposure has ceased?
Yes, it may progress even after exposure has ceased.
What are common sites of metastasis for lung cancer?
Adrenal glands, liver, brain, and bone.
What is the most common subtype of lung carcinoma?
Adenocarcinoma.
In which demographic is sarcoidosis most common in the U.S.?
African American females aged 20-40 years old.
How long may CIS (carcinoma-in-situ) last before transforming into invasive SCC?
Years.
What is the etiology of Tuberculosis?
Mycobacterium tuberculosis.
How does silicosis affect the risk of cancer?
It increases the risk of cancer by two times.
At what age does Idiopathic Pulmonary Fibrosis (I.P.F.) rarely occur?
Before the age of 55 years.
What can cystic fibrosis lead to in terms of heart function?
Right-sided heart failure.
How effective are the drugs in preventing reactivation of TB disease?
As effective.
What happens to the parenchyma in emphysema?
Spaces or holes are formed when the septum is destroyed.
Where does squamous cell carcinoma tend to arise in the lungs?
Centrally in major bronchi.
What are the other organs affected by sarcoidosis?
Lymph nodes, spleen, bone marrow, eyes, skin, oral mucosa, heart, CNS, and parotid glands.
How long do asbestos fibers remain in the body?
For life (20 - 40 years latency).
What are the risk factors associated with lobar pneumonia?
Diabetes, alcoholism.
What are the consequences of increased goblet cells or hyperplastic submucosal glands in asthma?
Formation of mucus plugs.
What are some seasonal triggers of bronchoconstriction in asthma?
Cold air.
What does IPF stand for?
Idiopathic Pulmonary Fibrosis.
What percentage of patients develop secondary TB?
Less than 5%.
What are the treatment options for lung cancer?
Surgery, radiation, chemotherapy, immunotherapy, and targeted tyrosine kinase inhibitors.
What is the primary cause of Laryngeal Squamous Cell Carcinoma?
Cigarette smoking (95% related).
Which subtype of lung carcinoma has the worst prognosis and almost always metastasizes?
Small cell carcinoma.
What are the signs and symptoms of sarcoidosis?
Fever, fatigue, weight loss, anorexia, night sweats.
What is the characteristic of invasive SCC appearance in the lungs?
Often insidious lesions that have spread and are unresectable before producing symptoms.
What is the histological characteristic of bronchitis in the trachea and large bronchi?
Hypertrophy of submucosal glands, hypersecretion of mucus, and inflammatory infiltrate.
What are some viral causes of community-acquired acute pneumonia?
Influenza types A and B, respiratory syncytial viruses, human metapneumovirus, adenovirus, rhinoviruses.
How does Tuberculosis spread from person to person?
Via airborne droplets.
What are the characteristics of oral mucosal nodules in oral tuberculosis?
Irregular, indurated, red or ulcerated, often painful.
What is the main cause of I.P.F. in genetically predisposed individuals?
Cigarette smoking.
What occurs to the alveolar walls in emphysema?
Thinning and destruction.
What genetic changes are associated with squamous cell carcinoma?
Loss or mutation of suppressor genes TP53, CDKN2A (p16), RB.
What percentage of sarcoidosis patients experience spleen involvement?
75%.
In which population is secondary TB more common?
Immunocompromised individuals with CD4+ T cell counts below 200 cells/μL.
Is Laryngeal Squamous Cell Carcinoma more prevalent in males or females?
More prevalent in males (M>F).
What type of exercise can induce bronchoconstriction in asthma?
Exercise-induced.
What is the etiology of IPF?
Unknown (possibly genetic predisposition).
What is QuantiFERON used for?
Diagnosing Latent Tuberculosis Infection (LTBI).
What is the subtype of lung carcinoma with neuroendocrine origin?
Small cell carcinoma.
What is the result of subepithelial fibrosis in asthma?
Structural changes in the airway.
Which mutations may be targeted with tyrosine kinase inhibitors in lung cancer?
EGFR and ALK mutations.
What is emphysema?
Abnormal permanent enlargement of air spaces distal to terminal bronchioles, especially in the upper lobe of the lung.
How is the clinical course of sarcoidosis described?
Insidious onset of respiratory abnormalities such as shortness of breath, cough, chest pain, and hemoptysis.
How does osteomyelitis in oral tuberculosis spread to bone?
Hematogenous → periapical tissues → bone.
What are some industrial hazards that are carcinogens for lung carcinoma?
Uranium, asbestos, arsenic, chromium, nickel, vinyl chloride, mustard gas, high dose ionizing radiation.
What is the morphology associated with bronchitis?
Increased goblet cells in the lining epithelium and loss of cilia.
What happens to the airspaces in emphysema?
They become abnormally enlarged.
What are the components of the Upper Respiratory Tract (URT)?
Nasal cavity, pharynx, larynx.
What are the characteristics of peripherally located adenocarcinoma?
It grows more slowly and forms smaller masses than other subtypes.
What is the 5-year survival rate for Laryngeal Squamous Cell Carcinoma in the glottis area?
Approximately 77% overall.
What accompanies the abnormal enlargement of air spaces in emphysema?
Destruction of their walls without obvious fibrosis.
What causes vocal cords to become nodular?
Overuse and trauma (preacher’s, singer’s nodules).
What is the pathogenesis of emphysema?
The normal balance between proteolytic agents and their antagonists is disturbed.
What are the clinical features used for diagnosing chronic bronchitis?
Persistent productive cough for 3 consecutive months in 2 consecutive years.
What are the components of the Lower Respiratory Tract (LRT)?
Trachea, bronchi, bronchioles, alveolar ducts, alveoli.
Who is adenocarcinoma most common in?
Women and non-smokers.
What is the 5-year survival rate for Laryngeal Squamous Cell Carcinoma in the subglottis and supraglottis areas?
Approximately 46% overall.
How is emphysema diagnosed?
Through clinical signs, lung function tests, and imaging.
What drives the growth of laryngeal papillomas?
HPV (Human Papillomavirus).
What are the clinical symptoms of emphysema?
Dyspnea, cough, wheezing.
What factor disturbs the normal balance in emphysema?
Smoking, which leads to increased proteolytic agents (e.g. elastase).
What percentage of males aged 40-65 years are affected by chronic bronchitis?
Up to 20-25%.
What kind of mutations are found in adenocarcinoma?
Gain-of-function mutations in multiple growth genes encoding receptor tyrosine kinases.
What does COPD stand for?
Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease.
What type of cancer can affect the larynx?
Squamous cell carcinoma.
Which enzyme is the most important protease inhibitor in emphysema?
Enzyme alpha 1-antitrypsin, found in serum, tissue fluids, and macrophages.
Name the growth genes encoding receptor tyrosine kinases with mutations in adenocarcinoma.
EGFR (epidermoid growth factor receptor), ALK (anaplastic lymphoma kinase), KRAS (Ras family oncogene).
Where does the hypersecretion of mucus begin in chronic bronchitis?
In the large airways.
What happens to the elastic recoil in emphysema?
It is lost, requiring affected persons to forcefully squeeze air out of the lungs.
What conditions are often encompassed by the term COPD?
Chronic bronchitis and emphysema.
What is PPD used for in the diagnosis of tuberculosis?
To diagnose tuberculosis.
What is the strongest association of small cell carcinoma?
Smoking.
Give an example of a drug that can induce bronchoconstriction in asthma.
Aspirin.
