L-9 Democracy

Democracy is the least bad of all systems.

Democracy is of the people, by the people, for the people.

Abraham Lincoln - Gettysburg Address, 1863

Jean-Jacques Rousseau - The Social Contract, 1762

John Stuart Mill - Considerations on Representative Government, 1861

Federalist Papers, 1788

Democracy in America, 1835

Capitalism, Socialism, and Democracy, 1942

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Alexis de Tocqueville - "The health of a democratic society may be measured by the quality of functions performed by private citizens."

Montesquieu - "There is no liberty if the judiciary power be not separated from the legislative and executive."

Hannah Arendt - "The absence of participation in power by citizens is the first symptom of what is generally called 'the crisis of democracy.'"

Robert Dahl - "When the ordinary citizen is virtually powerless... policy tends to be responsive to the privileged."

C. Wright Mills - The Power Elite, 1956

Iris Marion Young - highlighted disparities in public voice and access to power, undermining substantive equality.

Strong Democracy (1984)

"Participation is like the muscle tissue of democracy; the more it is exercised, the stronger and more expansive it grows."

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"Man is born free, and everywhere he is in chains."

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"The worth of a state, in the long run, is the worth of the individuals composing it."

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Participatory democracy as "a way of life", essential for genuine democratic engagement.

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Instrumental View: Citizens act out of rational self-interest, e.g., voting for policies benefiting them.

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Developmental View: Participation enhances civic competence and sustains democratic vitality.

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"The social responsibility of individuals is to contribute to the well-being of their communities."

"The sad truth is that most evil is done by people who never make up their minds to be good or evil."

His quote on communicative rationality: "Deliberation takes place when participants argue and weigh validity claims intending to reach rationally motivated agreement."

His quote on public reason: "Justifications for political principles must be accessible and acceptable to all citizens."

Their quote: "The goal... is not to eliminate disagreement but to improve the quality of justification."

His quote on democratic deliberation: "The central aim of democratic deliberation is not consensus, but the respect of each other as free and equal persons."

Nancy Fraser critiques deliberative democracy for privileging rhetorically skilled participants and warns of the 'tyranny of the articulate,' where marginalized voices may be excluded from meaningful discourse.

Jürgen Habermas: 'The force of communicative rationality permits the emergence of a democratic public sphere.'

Amy Gutmann & Dennis Thompson: 'Deliberative democracy accommodates diverse perspectives better than any alternative.'

John Rawls: 'The principles of justice are the result of free and reasoned agreement among equals.'

James Fishkin: 'Deliberation can counter polarization and paralysis in politics.'

Benjamin Barber: 'Deliberative democracy educates citizens to be more reasonable.'

David Estlund critiques deliberative democracy for epistemic elitism, as it tends to favor the articulate or expert, creating democratic imbalance.

Mark Warren critiques deliberative democracy for its practicality, stating that large-scale implementation is resource-intensive and logistically complex.

John Dryzek critiques deliberative democracy for the risk of manipulation, where elite actors may co-opt or steer deliberative spaces.

Jane Mansbridge critiques deliberative democracy for inefficiency, noting that deliberation may delay urgent decision-making in crisis contexts.

Weak Enforcement (2023)

Capitalism, Socialism and Democracy (1942)

On Democracy (1998)

"The end of law is not to abolish or restrain, but to preserve and enlarge freedom."

The Spirit of the Laws (1748)

Democracy in America (1835)

1970

1956

1999

2000

Democracy is a vehicle for individual development and social progress, stressing education and participation.

Democracy enhances human capabilities and freedoms; without addressing poverty, gender inequality, and access to education and healthcare, democracy remains incomplete.

Critiqued procedural models for excluding marginalized voices and emphasized structural justice across race, gender, and class.

Permits inequalities only if they benefit the least advantaged.

Friedrich Hayek - "The curious task of economics is to demonstrate... how little they really know about what they imagine they can design."

James Buchanan - "Economic policy in a democracy has to be... one consistent package."

Cass R. Sunstein - "Polarization... undermines the ability of the political system to function effectively."

Thomas Sowell - "The welfare state... is about the egos of the elites."

His quote: 'A human being is not just an individual... like a stone or a tree.'

It argues that all societies are inherently governed by a small, powerful minority, and that democratic mechanisms like elections legitimize elite control rather than enable genuine mass participation.

Pareto, an Italian sociologist, introduced the concept of the 'circulation of elites.' He argued that societies are always ruled by a small 'governing elite' with superior qualities (e.g., cunning, wealth).

C. Wright Mills stated, 'The ordinary citizen is a negligible force in the political system.'

C. Wright Mills stated, 'Inequality of wealth and income is the ultimate and paramount source of power in American society.'

Sheldon Wolin stated, 'Pluralism is a device for making democracy safe for America's upper classes.'

Robert Michels' 'iron law of oligarchy' argued that even democratic organizations develop hierarchical leadership structures over time, consolidating power in the hands of a few.

In 'Capitalism, Socialism, and Democracy' (1942), Schumpeter redefined democracy as a competitive struggle among elites for votes.

Who Governs? (1961)

The Governmental Process (1951)

The Process of Government (1908)

Democracy is realized when there is a 'free and open contest for the people's vote.'

Interest groups are essential for representing diverse societal interests in the political process.

Political decisions are influenced by a complex interplay of social forces.

His work on Polyarchy, published in 1971.

"A polyarchy is a system in which citizens have a real opportunity to formulate preferences, and leaders are free to exercise their own preferences."

His work on the critique of pluralism, published in 1908.

"The vice of pluralism is its dispersion."

"Democracy doesn't require everyone to be an expert in politics but should ensure everyone has a say."

Robert Dahl is known for his work 'Polyarchy' published in 1971.

Polyarchy is a multidimensional concept where elections are just one aspect of democratic governance.

Robert A. Dahl, 'Polyarchy: Participation and Opposition' (1971)

Popular sovereignty - 'government by the people.'

C.B. Macpherson - Radical Theory of Democracy, 1973

True democracy must go beyond legal liberty to ensure people have real capabilities to act meaningfully in political life. Freedom should be both from oppression and to participate.

Voting alone is insufficient; citizens must have substantive avenues to influence decisions that affect their lives—moving from passive subjects to active participants.

Political equality is incomplete without addressing economic power. Macpherson called for democratic control over economic institutions to prevent capitalist monopolization of resources.

C.B. Macpherson - Equality of Access: Democracy must guarantee substantive equality—equal access to education, employment, and public platforms, not just formal rights.

He warned that liberal democracies tend to concentrate power among elites and advocated for measures like campaign finance regulation and term limits to curb elite dominance.

Iris Marion Young - Inclusion and Democracy: Calls for a deliberative model that embraces pluralism, identity, and group representation, ensuring that historically marginalized voices are actively included.

David Held - Democracy and the Global Order: Critiques the democratic deficit in international governance structures as states lose control to global capital and supranational bodies.

Carole Pateman - Advocates for the educative and empowering effects of direct citizen engagement, urging a move beyond mere electoral participation.

Bernard Manin - Defends representative democracy as practical and necessary in large, complex societies, focusing on legitimacy through institutional design.

Republic.com 2.0

Capital in the Twenty-First Century

Echo chambers and misinformation undermine democratic discourse.

Rising inequality corrodes political equality, turning democracies into plutocracies.